1947: Whipple Shield proposed
foundation of MMOD protection
https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1947AJ…..52Q.131W/abstract
1950s–present: Aluminum alloys become the “default” primary spacecraft structural material
(High specific strength, easy machining/forming, mature supply chain and joining, strong reliability record)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2238785423024006
1960s–1970s: Multi-Layer Insulation (MLI) becomes the core on-orbit thermal control material system
(The “silver blanket” is not cosmetic—it is a thermal engineering necessity)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0011227514000447
4) 1970s: Shuttle silica tiles (e.g., LI-900) drive reusable TPS (Thermal Protection Systems)
(Low-density silica fiber insulation: high temperature capability + very low thermal conductivity)
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19740020226/downloads/19740020226.pdf
5) 1980s: RCC (Reinforced Carbon-Carbon) for extreme-temperature leading edges
(Handles severe re-entry heat flux, but requires oxidation protection and robust coatings)
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19800017901/downloads/19800017901.pdf
6) 1999–2000s: PICA (Phenolic-Impregnated Carbon Ablator) becomes a flagship ablator for high-energy entries
(Low density + strong ablation performance for high heat flux and high total heat load missions)
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20190026744
7) 2010s–present: Additive Manufacturing + UHTCMC enable the “reusability + high-temperature propulsion” materials jump
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AM (e.g., Ti-6Al-4V): shifts structural parts toward design-driven manufacturing and rapid iteration
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UHTCMC: targets erosion-resistant, reusable nozzles / hot-section components
AM (Ti-6Al-4V spacecraft applications):
UHTCMC nozzle reusability tests: