Psy

4.1

Interpersonal attraction is traditionally defined in social psychology as a positive attitude or evaluation regarding a particular person.

Four Sources of Attraction

1. Proximity: The idea is that people will work harder to make friend with those to whom they are closet (physically)
2. Similarity: People usually fine it more rewarding to have a relationship with someone who shares the same attitudes, interests, values and experiences as they do.
3. Self-Disclosure: It takes time to develop the trust necessary to share intimate details about oneself
   • Generally we want to spend time around those who know us best.
4. Physical Attractiveness: Yes it is vain, but it is reality. People are generally attracted to those who are more physically attractive
   • Average = attractive
   • Beautiful = unapproachable

Three Components of Love

1. Intimacy: The closeness each partner feels to the other and the strength of the bond that binds them together.
2. Passion: Based on romantic feelings, physical attraction, and sexual intimacy.
3. Decision/Commitment: Acknowledging that one is in love and committed to maintaining the relationship.
   Companionate attraction (intimacy + commitment): Deeper than friendship
   Passionate attraction (intimacy + Passion): Intimate and physical, but it doesn’t have commitment
   Fatuous attraction (passion + commitment): High in passion and commitment but low in intimacy.
   Consummate attraction (intimacy + commitment + passion): Self-actualized

4.2 Attitude Formation and attitude change

• A tendency to respond positively or negatively to a certain idea, person, object, or situation

Three Components

• Affective: The emotional component; the way a person feels toward the object, person, or situation.
• Behavior: The action a person takes in regard to the person, object, or situation.
• Cognitive: The way a person thinks about the person, object, or situation; includes beliefs and ideas about the focus of the attitude.

E/I

1. Explicit attitudes are attitudes that are at the conscious level, are deliberately formed, and are easy to self-report.
2. Implicit attitudes are those that individuals hold but may be unaware of or may not acknowledge.
   A stereotype is a generalized concept about a group/ Stereotypes can help reduce cognitive load when making decisions or judgments.

Cognitive Dissonance

Proposed by Leon Festinger

• A highly motivating state in which people have conflicting cognitions (thoughts), especially when their voluntary actions conflict with their attitudes.
• Reduce the conflict by changing their thinking to fit their behavior

Persuasion

Persuasion: One person tries to change the belief, opinion, position, or course of action of another

• Central Route of Persuasion: Focuses on facts and the content
• Peripheral Route of Persuasion: Peripheral factors

Foot in the Door (FITD)

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

• The FITD technique has been used in fund raising and to promote environmental awareness
• A large request is made knowing it will probably be refused so that the person will agree to a much smaller request.

Lowballing

• Strategy to induce a person to agree to something by enticing the individual with a low ‘cost’ and then add-on to the original product.
• e.g. buy a car with no options, but when you add-on the options you have paid more money
  Belief perseverance occurs when a belief persists when if evidence suggests it is not accurate.

Psychology of Social Situations

• Conformity: The tendency for people to adapt their behaviors, attitudes, and opinions to fit the actions of other members of a group.
• Compliance(or group acceptance) is public conformity.

Social influence theory Explanations for Conformity

• informational social influence is an explanation of conform because we want to be seen as correct to agree with majority opinion
• Normative social influence is when we agree with majority opinion to gain social approval and being liked.

Research on conformity: Asch, S.E (1951)

75% of those subjected to group pressure conformed to the false judgment of the group one or more times.
25% remained completely independent.
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• Only male/from USA
• vision test -> conformity deception
• Laboratory x daily life

3 factors

1. The size of the majority
2. The presence of a partner who dissented from the majority
3. The size of the discrepancy between the correct answer and the majority’s opinion

Fundamental Attribution Error

Attribute people’s behavior and misfortunes to their personal traits rather than situational forces

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency for us to judge ourselves by a double standard

Actor-Observer Bias

The tendency to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes while attributing our own behavior to external or situational causes

Fundamental Attribution Error ⊂ Actor-observer bias

Terms
Fundamental Attribution Error	Failure	Others
Self-Serving Bias	Failure	Self + Others
Actor-Observer Bias	Failure + Success	Self

Haney, Banks and Zimbardo (1973) A Study of Prisoners and Guards in a Simulated Prison

Aim

• To investigate prisoner-guard conflict in a simulated prison environment

Sample

• Male college student

Conclusion

• Ethical issues: protection from psychological form

警卫与囚犯

Obedience

Changing one’s behavior at the command of an authority figure (a person who has the right to demand certain behavior from the people under his/her command or supervision)

Social Power Theory

Obedience occurs to the different kinds of social power.
Legitimate Power法律地位 - held by those in certain roles

Milgrams’ Agency Theory

People have two states of behavior when they are in a social situation
The autonomous state - people direct their own actions through their free will, and they take responsibility for the results of those actions.
The agentic state - People give up their personal free will, people allow others to direct their actions Other people are responsible for the results. They act as agents for another person’s will.

Aim

• The aim was to investigate whether people would bey orders if involving harming others

Method controlled observation

• Controlled observation

Sample

• 40 males

  • Experimenter-Teacher-Learner

• It was pronounced to be a study of memory and learning

• Deception
  15 30 45 … 450 V
  _ _ _ _ .

Result

26 -> 450V

• Ordinary people are likely to follow orders by an authority figure (权威形象), even to kill an innocent human being.

Ethical issues

• Deception, no protection from psychological harm, No right to withdraw, No informed consent, Debrief

Group Influence

Individualism culture

Individual needs are prior to group needs.

Collectivism culture

Group needs are prior to individual needs.

• In-group Bias is a cognitive bias that explains why people favor one’s own group over other groups.

• The Out-group homogeneity bias effect is the perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than are in-group members.
  $\cdot$

• Groupthink is a phenomenon that occurs when a group of individuals reaches a consensus without critical reasoning.

• Diffusion of responsibility refers to the fact that as the number of bystanders increases, the personal responsibility that an individual bystander feels decreases.

$$\frac{Responsibility}{Numbe{r}^{\prime }o{f}^{\prime }bystander}$$

• Bystander effect: When someone is less likely to help another if other potential helpers are present.

• De-individuation is the perceived loss of individuality and personal responsibility that can occur when someone participates as part of a group.

• Group polarization is the tendency for groups to show a shift towards the extremes of decision-making.

• Social facilitation is a social phenomenon in which being in the presence of others improves individual task performance.

• Social norms are shared standards of acceptable behavior by groups.

• Display rules Display rules are a social group or culture’s informal norms that distinguish how one should express themselves.

• The Reciprocity norm is a social rule that if someone does something for you, you then feel obligated to return the favor.

• A Social trap is a conflict of interest or perverse incentive where individuals or a group of people act to obtain short-term individual gains, which in the long run leads to a loss for the group as a whole.

• Social loafing(游手好闲) is the phenomenon of a person exerting less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group than when working alone.

• Superordinate goals These are shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

• A Prisoner’s dilemma is a situation where individual devision-makers always have an incentive to choose in a way that creates a less than optimal outcome for the individuals as a group.

Bias, Prejudice and Discriminations

• Ethnocentrism: When people judge other cultures according to the preconceptions based on their own culture.

• Stereotype: Positive or negative ideas and expectations of any group of people.

• Prejudice: is an unjustifiable negative attitude or stereotype of a group member or whole group without having sufficient information to support such ideas.

• Discrimination refers to unjust treatment of different categories of people, often resulting from stereotypes and prejudice.

Altruism and Aggression

• Altruism is the unselfish concern for the welfare of others.

• Aggression is hostile behavior toward another person or their interests.

• Instrumental aggression refers to a behavior (aggressive or violent) intend to achieve a goal.

• Hostile aggression is a type of aggression that is committed in response to a perceived threat or insult.

• Catharsis is believed to be a process of releasing negative emotions such as grief and anger.

Biological basis of aggression

• Chromosome abnormality
• Limbic system Amygdala, Hypothalamus
• Low level of serotonin
• High level of Androgen/Testosterone
• Traumatic brain injuries can be related to aggression

Behavioral explanation for agression

Modeling

Modeling is a general process in which persons serve as models for others, exhibiting the behavior to be imitated by the others.

• Bandura: Bobo doll experiment

Personality

Personality: Psychological qualities that bring a consistency to an individual’s thoughts and behaviors in different situations and at different times.

Type A

• Feel time pressure
• Easily angered
• 调理
• Competitive and ambitious
• Work hard and play hard
• More prone to heart disease their rest of population

Type B

• Relaxed and easygoing
• But some people fit in neither type.

Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality

Freud said the unconscious (hidden parts of the mind) was a source of powerful impulses instincts, motives, and conflicts that energize personality.

Freud used the term dynamic to refer to mental energy force
It emphasizes the importance of:

• Early childhood experiences
• Unconscious or repressed thoughts that we can’t voluntarily access
• conflicts between conscious and unconscious forces that influence our feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.

Libido is a term used in psychoanalytic theory to describe the energy created. By survival and sexual instincts
“Death instinct” that drives aggressive and destructive acts humans commit against each other.

Psychodynamic Theory (冰山)

• Conscious thoughts: are wishes, desires, or thoughts that we are aware of or can recall at any given moment.
• Preconscious - things we can be aware of if we think of them.
• Unconscious forces: represent wishes, desires, or thoughts that because of their disturbing/threatening content, we automatically repress and cannot voluntarily access.
• Freud believed that a large part of our behavior was guided or motivated by unconscious forces.

Freud’s Structure of the Human Psyche

The id is the impulsive (and unconscious) part of our psyche that responds directly and immediately to basic urges, needs, and desires. It operates on the Pleasure principle

The ego is the rational part of the psyche that mediates between the instinctual desires of the id and the moral constraints of the superego, operating primarily ar the conscious level. It operates according to the reality principle

The superego incorporates the values and morals of society. It operates on the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially responsible and acceptable manner.

Defense Mechanisms

Defense Mechanisms are Freudian processes that operate at the unconscious level and that use self-deception or untrue explanations to protect the ego from being overwhelmed by anxiety.

• Rationalization: involves covering up the true reasons for actions, thoughts, or feelings by making up excuses and incorrect explanations.
• Denial: is refusing to recognize some anxiety-provoking event or piece of information that is clear to others.
• Repression: involves blocking and pushing unacceptable or threatening feelings, wishes, or experiences in the unconscious.
• Projection: falsely and unconsciously attributes your own unacceptable feelings, traits, or thoughts to individuals or objects.
• Reaction Formation: involves substituting behaviors, thoughts, or feelings that are the direct opposite of unacceptable ones.
• Sublimation: Channeling one’s frustration toward a different goal. Sometimes a healthy defense mechanism.
• Displacement: involves transferring feelings about, or a response to, an object that causes anxiety to another person or an object that is less threatening.
• Regression is an unconscious defense mechanism, which causes the temporary or long-term reversion of the ego to an earlier stage of development (instead of handling unacceptable impulses in a more adult manner).

Techniques to Discover the Unconscious

• Free association
  • Freud encouraged clients to talk about any thoughts for images that enter their head to provide clues to unconscious material
• Dream interpretation
  • Dreams contain underlying hidden meanings and symbols that provide clues to unconscious thoughts and desires
  • Manifest content - obvious story or plot
  • Latent content - dream’s hidden or disguised meanings or symbols
• Freudian Slips
  • Mistakes or slips of the tongue that we make in everyday speech, which reflect unconscious thoughts or wishes.
• Projective test
  • A personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics.
• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
  • uses 20 pictures of people in ambiguous situations as the visual stimuli
  • People express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
• Rorschach inkblot test
  • A set of 10 inkblots seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

Humanistic Theories are optimistic about the core if human nature

• Personality is driven by needs to adapt and learn.
• Mental disorders, low self-esteem and unmet needs.
• All individuals are unique and have an innate (inborn) drive to achieve their maximum potential.

Carl Rogers - Client Centered

• He identified healthy personalities as the fully functioning person
• An individual who has a self-concept that is positive and congruent with reality
• He believed that people are basically good and are endowed with self-actualizing tendencies
• He also believed that people nurture our growth by being genuine-by being open with their own feelings.

Self-concept: the development of an image of oneself
Real self: one’s actual perception of characteristics, traits, and abilities that form the basis of the striving for self-actualization.
Ideal self: the perception of what one should be or would like to be.
Matching - experiences harmony and contentment
Mismatching - experiences anxiety

Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory of Personality

Rotter’s Expectancy Theory
Our behavior is governed by those expectations
Belief in your own ability to affect the outcome

• Internal locus of control is when you have high expectations of being able to exert some control
• External locus of control is when you believe the outcome is determined by factors outside of your control

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Observational learning is when you see something modeled and then do it
Self-efficacy is your own level of belief in your ability to be successful (or nor!)

Reciprocal determinism

The factors of environment, personal characteristics, and behavior can interact to determine future behavior.

3 ways Individual situations and environments interact

1. Internal cognitive factors
2. Environment
3. Behaviors

Trait Theory of Personality

Trait: a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories.

The Five-Factor Theory

Personality is composed of five fundamental personality dimensions

Terms	Explanation	High Score	Low Score
Openness	Emphasizes imagination and insight	Have a broad range of interests, curious about the world	Traditional, do not want to change
Conscientiousness	High levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse control, and goal-directed behaviors	Organized, careful, disciplined	Disorganized, careless, impulsive
Extraversion	Excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional expressiveness	Sociable, Fun-loving, affectionate	Retiring, sober, reserved
Agreeableness	Trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors
Neuroticism	Sadness, moodiness, and emotional instability

• Factor analysis
• Statistical procedure used to identify clusters or groups of related items (latent variable or factors) on a test
  Standardization is the process used in psychometric test development to create norms so that the performance of individuals can be compared
• Criterion validity/Predictive validity
• Concurrent validity shows you the extent of the agreement between two measures or assessments taken at the same time
• Face Validity
  Types of Personality Tests

There are two main kinds of personality tests

Objective personality tests

Construct Validity: A construct is a theoretical concept, theme, or idea. Depression, anxiety and stress are all psychological constructs. 测到了

4.6 Motivation

• Operational Definition of motivation

1. Rate your motivation level (Self-report)
2. Check dopamine level

• Motivation is a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal.

Primary needs	Secondary needs
Hunger	Social approval
Thirst	Belongingness
Need for warmth	Love

• Drive: State of tension or arousal caused by biological / Physiological needs. Homeostasis -> Hypothalamus
• Drive reduction theory: Behavior is motivated by the need to reduce physiological imbalances or “drives”
• ???

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Incentive Theory of motivation

People are motivated by a drive for incentives and reinforcement. Result in a reward and avoid actions that may entail punishment. (Law of effect)

• The law of effect states that any behavior that leads to a desirable outcome will be repeated
  Dopamine is released when we feel pleasure.
  Dopamine - a sense of wanting something

Behavior	Intrinsic	Extrinsic
Exercise	Feel Happier	Lose weight
Intrinsic motivation

• Rewards we get internally e.g. enjoyment or satisfaction
• Intrinsic is better than Extrinsic
• Results in higher achievement
  Extrinsic Motivation
• Reward that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves (grades or money etc.)
• Works great in the short run
• Decreases the degree of creativity when compared to intrinsic motivation

Over justification effect
If we give extrinsic rewards or motivators
Person’s intrinsic motivation will be replaced by that extrinsic motivation

Lewin’s motivational conflicts theory

Approach-approach conflict occurs when individual is presented with 2 desirable alternatives
Avoidance-avoidance conflicts occurs when a person avoids or tries to avoid two undesirable alternatives.

Approach-avoidance conflict occurs when a person perceives the same goal in both positive and negative meanings.

Arousal Theory (唤起程度)

Sometimes we do not seek homeostasis but seek for arousal or excitement.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

 .    .

… .

It predicts that there is a relationship between the difficulty of a task, our level of arousal.
难 -> 低

Sensation Seeking Theory

Our motivation can come from a desire for new or exciting experiences.

• Experience seeking: looking for new ideas and experiences
• Thrill or adventure seeking: Wanting to engage in risky or exciting activities
• Disinhibition: related to a preference for social and behavioral freedom
• Boredom susceptibility: Finding it hard to tolerate repetitive or dull situations
  Non-human animals often rely on instincts to guide their behavior. These are innate patterns that don’t require learning
  Humans, however, show very few truly instinctual behaviors.

Maslow’s Hierarchy Theory

Motivation of hunger

Lateral Hypothalamus

• When stimulated it makes you hungry
• When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again

Ventromedial Hypothalamus

• When stimulated you feel full
• When lesioned you will never feel full again

Physiology of Hunger

Leptin (Hormone): Send stop eating message
Gherlin: appetite invreaser

4.7 Emotions

Theories of Emotions
Emotion, or affect is a psychological process that differs from reasoning or knowledge
It involves both internal (such as thoughts and physiological responses) and external (such as social interactions or environmental events)

• Internal (Biological, cognitive)
• External (Environment)

Galvanic Skin Response - An increase in the electrical conductivity of the skin that occurs when swear glands in crease their activity
Polygraph - Lie detector test that records autonomic fluctuations while a subject is questioned.

Sequential Theories

Some theories suggest that emotions happen in steps - first, the body reacts (such as an increased heart rate), and then the brain interprets that the reaction as an emotion.

1. Behavior -> emotion

There are 2 different pathways for experiencing emotion
Some emotions, particularly those needed for our immediate survival (e.g., anger or rage), were quickly activated through a fast pathway, while other emotions (e.g., love) went through a slow pathway.
An example of this is when you automatically get startled by a sound in the forest before labeling it as a threat.

1. Fast path: emotion for survival
   Slow path: emotion not for survival, cognitive arousal

Simultaneous Theories

Other theories propose that physical reactions and emotional experiences happen at the same time rather than one causing the other.

Cognitive Labeling Theories

Another perspective argues that for an emotion to be fully experienced, the brain must label it. In other words, a person needs to consciously identify what they are feeling.

Facial-feedback hypothesis

A person’s facial expressions can influence their emotions.

Broaden-and-Build Theory

Positive emotions (like joe or curiosity) help broaden a person’s awareness and encourage exploration, leading to long-term personal growth.

Negative emotions (like fear or anger) tend to do the opposite, narrowing a person’s focus on immediate threats or problems.

Cultural differences in emotion expression

• Display rules
• A socially learned standard that regulates the expression of emotion

Age

Children and adults may have different expectations for expressing emotions.

Gender

Certain emotions may be considered more acceptable for one gender than another (e.g., men may be discouraged from showing sadness in some cultures).

Socioeconomic Class

Emotional expression can be influenced by social status, with some groups encouraged to hsow more or less emotion in public.

Cultural Universality

Research suggests that some basic emotions may be universal across human cultures
Six commonly identified universal emotions - anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear
Some. research supports the idea that these emotions are recognized across cultures, while other studies show mixed evidence.

Function of emotions (理解)

• Facilitate survival - Fear helps people react to danger, while disgust helps avoid harmful substances
• Enable social cooperation - Emotions help people communicate their feelings and intentions to others
• Support group cohesion - Shared emotion experiences strengthen relationships and group bonds

Lateralization of Emotion

Different parts of our brain deal with different emotions
Flash bulb memory
Cerebral cortex

• Right hemisphere Negative
• Left hemisphere Positive
  A meta-analysis is the statistical process of analyzing and combining results from several similar studies

5.1

Stress

Stress is a factor in heightened susceptibility to disorders and disease.

• Acute Stress: Short-term stress
• Chronic Stress: Long-term stress
  Stressor: A stressful stimulus or situation demanding adaptation

==Response to a Normal Stressor

The physical response to a normal stressor is fairly universal as well as follows the same sequence:

• An initiation of arousal
• A protective behavioral reaction (fight or flight)
• Internal response of the autonomic nervous system -> sympathetic nervous system
• A decrease in the effectiveness of the immune system

Traumatic Stressors

• Certain events go beyond a “normal” stressor
• A situation that threatens yours, or others’ physical safety and promotes a feeling of helplessness.

PTSD

Individuals who have undergone severe stress may experience a delayed pattern of stress symptoms that can appear as long as years after the event.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

They are sources of stress that can affect a person through out the lifespan.

General adaptation syndrome (GAS) describes the physiological changes your body goes through as it responds to stress

Alarm reaction - body mobilizes its resources to cope with a stressor (fight or flight)

Alarm stage

Cortisol is secreted. (Autonomic nervous system calls) The Sympathetic Nervous system is activated. (fight or flight)

Resistance Stage

The body tries to repair itself after the initial shock of stress
If succeed, your heart rate and blood pressure will start to return to prestress levels during this stage.
If not succeed, it will continue to secrete stress hormones, and your blood pressure will stay high.

Exhaustion Stage

Your body is no longer able to cope with stress

• Fatigue
• Burnout
• Decreased stress tolerance
  General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
  

Emotion-focused coping refers to using skills for processing and dealing with feelings that arise due to stressful situations
Problem-focused coping is a problem-solving technique in which an individual addresses a problem or stressor directly in an attempt to alleviate or eliminated it.

Tend-and-befriend theory

Human beings affiliate in response to stress. Under conditions of threat, they tend to offspring to ensure their survival and affiliate with others for joint protection and comfort.

5.2 Positive psychology

It seeks to identify factors that lead to well-being, resilience, positive emotions, psychological health and understanding what helps people live fulfilling and meaningful lives.

Gratitude

The practice pf recognizing and appreciating the positive aspects of life.

Using Personal Strengths to Enhance Happiness

people who exercise their signature strengths or virtues report higher levels of positive objective experiences such as happiness and subjective well-being.

The Values in Action (VIA) classification system organizes character strengths (signal strength) into six core virtues:

1. Wisdom
2. Courage
3. Humanity
4. Justice
5. Temperance
6. Transcendence

Post-traumatic growth

The positive changes that some people experience after facing trauma or major stress.

The process of growth typically requires:

1. Social support systems
2. Effective coping strategies
3. Ability to find meaning in difficult experiences

研究方法补充

The Likert Scale is a 5 or 7-point scale that is used to allow an individual to express how much they agree or disagree with a particular statement

Broaden-and-build theory is a psychological framework that suggests positive emotions expand an individual’s awareness and encourage novel, creative thoughts, and actions.
How positive emotions contribute to overall cognitive performance by enhancing flexibility in thinking and problem-solving abilities.

Identifying psychological disorders

Clinical Psychology, Abnormal Psychology

• Dysfunction - When thoughts, emotions, or behaviors interfere with daily lives

• Distress - Feeling extreme sadness anxiety, or emotional pain that affects well-being

• Deviation from Social Norms - Behaviors that are very different from what is considered normal in a culture

Diagnosis system

The DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual): only mental disorder

The ICD (International Classification of Diseases): mental + physical disorder

Impact of Diagnosing Psychological Disorders

Positive:

• Help individuals understand their condition and seek appropriate treatment

• Provides a framework for mental health professionals to develop treatment plans

Negative

• This can lead to stigma, making individuals feel labeled or judged by society

• It may reinforce discrimination based on factors like race, gender, age, or socioeconomic status

• A diagnosis can sometimes limit opportunities in areas like employment, education, or social relationships if others react negatively

Biological Psychology / Neuroscience

• Gene

• Hormone

• Brain structure

Evolutionary Psychology

• natural selection

Cognitive Psychology

• Perception, belief, interpretation

• cognitive dissonance

• cognitive distortion

Developmental Psychology

Behavioral Psychology

• Incentive

• Classical conditioning

• Operant conditioning → Token economy

• Observational learning / modeling

Social Psychology (Sociocultural Perspective)

• Social norm

• Altruism, obedience

• Authority figure

Psychoanalytic / Psychodynamic Psychology

• Unconcious, libido, sexual instinct

• Free association

• id, ego, superego

• Defense, mechanism

• Project test

Humanistic Psychology

• Free will

• Idea self

• Real self

• Need

• Potential

Positive Psychology

Eclectic approach

Using more than one psychological perspective

Diathesis-stress model

Mental disorders result from a combination of genetic risk factors interacting with environmental factors

Diathesis refers to a predisposition or vulnerability to developing a mental disorder

Research Method

• Experiment
• Correlation
• Naturalistic Observation
• Case study
• Meta-analysis

Others

• Longitudinal study
• Cross-section study
• Survey

5.4 Selection of Categories of Psychological Disorders

• Spectrum disorder 谱系障碍 refers to several different but similar disorders that vary in their duration and severity.
• Schizophrenia and psychotic disorder
• Neurodevelopmental Disorders
  A category of disorders that typically emerge during the time when we are developing - childhood and adolescence
• Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) involves problems with social communications and interaction and restricted or repetitive behaviors or interests.
• Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may cause trouble paying attention and controlling impulsive behaviors.
• Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders.
  Person loses contact with reality
• Symptoms of schizophrenia (DSM)
  Two (or more) of the following, 1-month period
  Positive symptoms (core symptoms):
  Delusions: beliefs that an individual holds, which are not based on reality.
  Common Delusions
• Delusions of Persecution
• Delusions of reference
• Delusions of influence
• Delusions of grandeur (or grandiose delusions)
  Hallucinations: sensory experiences, most commonly auditory (hearing things that are not there) or visual (seeing things that are not there)
• Disorganized speech: People have difficulty concentrating and maintaining a train of thought, which manifests in the way they speak. Speaking incoherently, saying illogical things, or shifting topics frequently.
• Disorganized behavior: Grossly disorganized or abnormal motor behavior is a difficulty in sustaining goal-oriented behavior. Catatonia is a disorder that disrupts a person’s awareness of the world around them.
• Negative symptoms: avolition (lack of motivation), flattened affect (blunted emotional expression), and impaired cognitive function (reduced memory or attention)
• Psychodynamic: Schizophrenia is a result of defective parenting or repressed childhood trauma.
• Excess dopamine can cause schizophrenia.
• Gene similarity is correlated with schizophrenia
• Patients cannot distinguish between belief and reality
• Typical antipsychotics are dopamine antagonists. They block dopamine receptors so there is less dopamine activity therefore reducing the positive symptoms
• Atypical antipsychotics block dopamine. Only blocks dopamine activity for a short period of time. Drugs that interfere with glutamate receptors produce negative symptoms.

Electro-convulsive therapy(ECT)
Alleviate symptoms of schizophrenia and related disorders
Involves passing electricity to induce a seizure 诱发癫痫
From 6 to 12 sessions. It is typically given twice a week. The non-dominant hemisphere reduces memory loss.

Mood disorder

Major Depression

Long-term sadness

• Lethargy (嗜睡)
• Feelings of worthlessness
• Loss of interest
• More likely to relapse (复发)
  Cause:
• Biochemical: lack of serotonin
• Cognitive: external locus of control, Learned helplessness
• Social-culture factor: stressful life event
  Beck’s cognitive triad
• Depression is a result of negative/faulty thinking. which he called “cognitive errors” (errors in logic)
• 3 negative thoughts: self, External world, future
  Seasonal affective disorder
• Experience depression during the fall & winter months
• Light therapy
  Treatment:
• Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), e.g., Prozac, Paxil, Zoloft, Lexapro
  Talking therapy
• It involves techniques such as questioning and identifying illogical thinking to determine and change the patient’s ways of thinking
• The therapist can then use techniques such as “reattributing” to treat.
  Bipolar disorder
• A mental abnormality involving mood swings.
  Manic state
• Little need for sleep
• Much fewer sexual inhibitions
• Rapid Speech

Bipolar Disorder

• Manic state
• Cause: genetic, similarity
• Treatment: antidepressants, lithium
• Psychotherapy: CBT
• Biological: ECT
  Somatoform disorders. physical symptoms suggest a physical disorder

Anxiety disorder

The primary symptom is excessive or unrealistic anxiety.
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

• Persistent and pervasive feelings of anxiety, without any external cause
• Unable to recall the last time they were relaxed
• Trembling
• Difficulty focusing & concentrating
  Phobic Disorder
• Phobias involve persistent and irrational fear associated with a specific object, activity, or situation
  Agoraphobia 广场恐怖症
• Crowded places, open spaces
  Panic Disorder
• Sudden and severe anxiety attacks
• Rapid heart rate, Shortness of breath, Nausea, Dizziness
  Culture-bound anxiety disorder
• Trembling, convulsions, uncontrollable screaming, shouting or crying, feelings of impending loss of control, shortness of breath.
  Obsessive-compulsive Disorder
• Irrational, ongoing, offensive thoughts
• Repetitive actions to soothe obsessions
  Treatment
• CBT
• Exposure & response prevention (ERP)

Trauma - and Stressor-Related Disorders

A response to an overwhelmingly stressful or traumatic event
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

• Triggered by a terrifying event, whether experiencing it or witnessing it.
  Treatment
• Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
  CBT helps you learn how to recognize thought patterns that fuel negative beliefs about yourself and help reduce maladaptive behaviors associated with PTSD.
• Exposure therapy
  Exposes you to memories and reminders of trauma to learn how to cope effectively

5.5 Introduction to Treatment

Psychopharmacology

Using prescribed medications

Psychotherapy

By psychological means

• Talk therapy

Meta-analysis

The statistical combination of results from two or more separate studies

Evidence-Based Treatment Approaches (循证)

Treatments that have been scientifically tested and proven effective
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
Exposure therapy

• Cultural humility - Recognizing and respecting a client’s cultural background, values, and experiences

The role of the therapeutic alliance

A strong therapeutic alliance, or the relationship between the therapist and the client, is one of the biggest predictors of successful treatment.

Deinstitutionalization

Shifting mental health care and support from long-stay psychiatric institutions to community mental health services.

• Fidelity and Integrity (focus on trust and honesty in therapy)
• Respect for people’s rights
  Psychodynamic approach
• Free association
  Identifying unresolved conflicts from childhood or past experiences

Humanistic therapy / Client-centered therapy

Carl Rogers
Clients equal to the therapist
The client decides what is discussed and the direction of therapy
The goal is to facilitate personal growth, self-acceptance, and self-esteem

Unconditional Positive Regard

The basic acceptance and support of a person regardless of what the person says or does.

Active listening

Empathic listening in which the listener echoes restates, and clarifies no Interpretation or judgment

Genuineness

Therapist acts as their true self Genuinely care about the client

Empathy

Understand what the client

Incongruence (不一致)

Between ideal self and real self

Hypnosis

focused attention, deep relaxation, and heightened suggestibility
useful for pain relief, anxiety