Psychology
Unit0
0.1 Psychology as a Science
Science
The systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment.
Falsifiability
Falsifiability is the capacity for some proposition, statement, theory, or hypothesis to be proven wrong.
The scientific attitude – curiosity + skepticism + humility
Curiosity drives inquiry, skepticism demands evidence, and humility acknowledges the limits of knowledge.
Critical thinking
Thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions.
Barrier to Science
*Hindsight bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along-phenomenon.)
*Overconfidence
Humans tend to think we know more than we do.
Perceive Orders in Random Events
Even in random data, we often find patterns, because – here’s a curious fact of life – random sequences often don’t look random.
0.2 Research Methods in Psychology
Correlation (association) (reliability+) (validity+)
Correlation is a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
- Positive Correlation
o A positive correlation is a relationship between 2 variables that tend to move to the same direction. 0<=r<=1
- Negative Correlation
o A negative correlation is a relationship between 2 variables such that as the value of one variable increases, the other decreases. -1<=r<=0
- Correlation coefficient & r value
o A number between -1 and 1 which shows the strength of a relationship between 2 variables with a coefficient of -1 meaning there is a perfect negative correlation and a coefficient of 1 meaning there is a perfect positive correlation.
Scatterplot
A way to display data from a correlational study.
|r| -> 1 Strong correlation
|r| -> 1 Weak correlation
Strength
- Correlation could be used when it is impractical or unethical to manipulate variables.
- No manipulation is required. It is high in ecological validity. (ethical)
- Correlation could use secondary data. It could be a quick way to carry out research. (quick)
Weakness (Limitation)
- Relationship of the third variable cannot be found.
- Causal (cause and effect) relationship cannot be established. -> Experiment
Experiment -> causal relationship (reliability+) (validity+)
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observer the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
Independent variable: variable which could be manipulated.
Dependent variable: variable which could be manipulated or observed.
Radom assignment: assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.
E.g. Learning strategy (IV) -> academic performance (DV)
Dependent variable
In an experiment
Operational definition
Make abstract variable measurable.
It helps everyone involved with the research understand and collect data in the same manner.
Biochemical measurement
Self-report
Observation (IV)
Experiment group
In an experiment the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of independent variable.
Control group
In an experiment, the groups not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
Placebo effect
Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes in an active agent
1.2 An experiment can investigate whether the light level affects how well we concentrate
Confounding variable
A factor other than the factor being studied that might produce an effect.
1) Situational variables
Situations of 2 groups must be equivalent except for the difference produced by the independent variables.
2) Participant variables
- Demand characteristics (Participants will behave according to the aim of the study) (当托)
- Social desirability bias (Participants’ behavior is socially desirable) (装好)
- Controlled by single-blind procedure
3) Experimenter bias
- A researcher or observer subtly communicates to the participants the kind of behavior he or she expects, therefore, creating the expected reaction and/or outcome
- Controlled by double blind procedure (to overcome)
Double-blind procedure
An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
Descriptive method
Survey Naturalistic observation Case Studies
Correlation Experiment ->
- Quantitative method
- Survey (reliability-) ()
Attitude, large sample, quick (有且仅有)
Closed questions: questionnaire, interview or test items that produce quantitative data. They have only a few, stated alternative responses and no opportunity to expand on answers.
Open questions / open-ended question: questionnaire, interview or test items that produce qualitative data. Participants give full and detailed answers in their own words, i.e. no categories or choices are given.
Wording effects (措辞效应): Even subtle changes in the order or wording of question can have major effects.
Population (研究的人): all those in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn.
Sample = the participants/people who are used in the study
Population -> Sample
Sampling technique -> Random sample: a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
e.g. Random number generator to pick students.
- Naturalistic observation (reliability controversies)
A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situation without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
- Case study (+triangulation) (reliability, it depends)
It examines one individual or group in depth in the hope of revealing things true of us all.
Individual cases can suggest fruitful ides. What’s true of all of us can be glimpsed on any one of us. (in depth valid)
But to discern the general truths that cover individual cases, we must employ other research methods. (hard to generalize)
- Cross-sectional study
A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.
Weakness: do not follow individuals up over time
Strength: inexpensive and easy to conduct
- Longitudinal studies
Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.
Weakness: more expensive and time-consuming than other types of studies
Participants would drop out.
Strength: establish the correct sequence of events, identify changes over time.
- Research process
Background -> aim -> method -> sample -> procedure -> result -> conclusions -> evaluations
How to define a good study?
- Generalizability
Whether the result could be generalized into wider population. (Equal gender + Random sample)
- Reliability: the extent to which a procedure, task or measure is consistent, for example that would produce the same results with the same people on each occasion
- Validity: the extent to test what to test
Happiness
-
Biochemical: dopamine level / heart beat
-
Self-report: 0 – 5
-
Observation: times of smile
Ethics in Psychology
Institutions
American Psychological Association (APA)
Federal regulations
Local institutional Review Board (IRB)
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (AUCU)
Ethical guidelines:
Informed consent
It should be obtained from participants before the study starts by giving them sufficient information about the procedure to decide whether they want to participate.
Right to withdraw
Participants should be able to leave a study whenever they wish.
Confidentiality
All data should be stored separately from the participants’ names and personal information held, and names should never be published unless the individuals have specifically agreed to this.
Privacy
A researcher should make clear to participants their right to ignore questions they do not want to answer. In observations, people should only be watched in situations where they would expect to be on public display.
Debriefing
Giving participants a full explanation of the aims and potential consequences of the study at the end of a study so that they leave in at least as positive a condition as they arrived.
Ethical guidelines
Protection of participants: participants should not be exposed to any greater physical or psychological risk than they would expect in their day-to-day life.
Deception: participants should not be deliberately misinformed (lied to) about the aim or procedure of the study. If this is unavoidable, the study should be planned to minimize the risk of distress, and participants should be thoroughly debriefed.
Replacement
Researchers should consider replacing animal experiments with alternatives.
Species and strain
Numbers
Only the minimum number of animals needed to produce valid and reliable results should be used.
Pain and distress
Housing
Isolation and crowding can cause animals’ distress.
Anesthesia, analgesia, and euthanasia
Reward, deprivation and aversive stimuli
Reward: Reward is used to reinforce target behavior
0.5 Statistical analysis in Psychology
Data analysis
Descriptive statistic ()
Inferential statistic ()
In psychology, Inferential statistics provides data from a sample that a researcher studies which enables him to make conclusions about the population.
Descriptive statistic are numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups.
Measures of central tendency
Mode the most frequently occurring scores in a distribution
Mean the arithmetic average of distribution, obtained but adding the scores and then
Median the measure of central tendency that calculate the middle value when the values in a data that are ranked in order.
Measures of variation
Range = highest value – the lowest value
Standard deviation
SD (Sx) = sqrt((sigma( x - mean[x] ) ^ 2) / (n - 1))
Graph: Bar chart
Bar chart are used to represent data from a category table (分类变量) / quantitative variables such as mean.
Graph: Histogram (cross-section)
A histogram is used to present the distribution of scores by illustrating the frequency of values in the data set.
x-axis: continuous data
y-axis: Frequency
Normal distribution
The normal distribution has
*mean =median = mode
*Symmetry about the center
*50% of values less than the mean and 50% greater than the mean
Skewed distribution
A skewed distribution is one where frequency data is not spread evenly (i.e. normally distributed) the data is clustered at one end.
Positive skew
Data that is positively skewed has a long tail that extends to the right. As a general rule, when data is skewed to the right (positively skewed), the mean will greater than the median)
Mode < median< mean
Negative skew
Data that is Negatively skewed has a long tail that extends to the left. As a general rule, when data is skewed to the left (negatively skewed), the median will typically greater than the mean)
Mean < median< mode
Z-Score Formula
The statistical formula for a value’s z-score is calculated using the following formula
Z = ( x - µ ) / o
Where:
Z = Z score
X = the value being evaluated
µ = the mean
o = the standard deviation
The alternative hypothesis, on the other hand, is the statement that there is a change, difference, or relationship.
A null hypothesis is the assumption that there is no difference between the groups being studied.
Ha: There is a negative correlation between happiness and body anxiety
H0: The possibility that there is a negative correlation between happiness and body anxiety is due to chance
P value means the probability that null hypothesis is due to chance. The level of statistical significance is often expressed as a p-value between 0 and 1. (H0发生概率) (Significant)
In a normal distribution, the mean is often a preferred measure of central tendency, as the mean is involved all data set.
In a skewed distribution, the median is often a preferred measure of central tendency, as the mean is not usually in the middle of the distribution.
U1 Biological Bases of Behavior
1.1 Interaction of Heredity and Environment
Nature
The idea that a behavior is a consequence of heredity. E.g. Genetic inheritance and other biological factors
Nurture
The idea that a behavior is a consequence of the environment. This includes experience and learning, but also factors such as stress and diet.
Aggressive Behavior is nature or nurture?
Family violence
Exposure to androgen
Super-male Syndrome
Aggressive Media
Social factor in a group
Evolutionary approach
Natural Selection
Individuals best adapted to the environment are more likely to flourish and reproduce
Those that are poorly adapted ill tend to leave fewer progeny and their line may die out
For those individuals whose ancestors had accumulated new traits that allowed them to survive, the result “would be the formation of a new species”
Evolutional Psychology
Evolutionary psychologists (also sometimes called sociobiologists) examine human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection.
Some psychological traits might be advantageous for survival, and these traits would be passed down from the parents to the nest generation.
Evolutionary psychologists are most interested in exploring commonalities
+-1 SD: 68%
+-2 SD: 95%
+-3 SD: 99%
Twin and adoption study
Identical (monozygotic) twins (100% gene similarity)
Develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.
Fraternal (dizygotic) twins (50% gene similarity)
Develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment.
Adoption studies
These compare adopted children to their adoptive parents, biological parents, adoptive siblings, and biological siblings. We can infer genetic influences if adopted children are more similar to their biological parents thanj p to their adoptive parents.
Biological Psychology (or Neuroscience)
Biopsychologists explain human thought and behavior strictly in terms of biological processes. Human cognition and reactions might be caused by effects of our genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters.
Genes the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins.
Genome
Turner’s syndrome is single X.
Klinefelter’s syndrome is extra X…XXY
Down syndrome…extra chromosome on 21st pair.
Super-male syndrome XYY (only male)
Genotype and phenotype
Alleles = gene
The trait controlled by the recessive allele only develops if the allele is present in both chromosomes in the pair, whereas the trait controlled by the dominant allele will develop of at least one of the chromosomes in the pair contains it.
Genotype (pairing)
Phenotype
Genetic problems
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a genetically determined metabolic disorder that is highly treatable with diet and supplement. It is an inherited disease in which the body cannot metabolize an amino acid called phenylalanine.
Overview of the nervous system and endocrine system
Endocrine System
The endocrine system is made up of glands
Glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream that target specific things in the body
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus links our endocrine and nervous systems together. The hypothalamus drives the endocrine system.
Pituitary gland
The pituitary gland receives signals from the hypothalamus. This is gland has 2 lobes, the posterior and anterior lobes.
X Thyroid gland
Secretes hormones (primarily thyroxine) that control metabolism play and important role in immune system
Parathyroid glands. Control levels of calcium and phosphate which in turn controls levels of excitability.
Pineal gland
Secretes melatonin which regulates the sleep-wake cycle
Circadian rhythm
The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a cycle of approximate 24-25 hours.
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm
In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness
X Pancreas
Regulates blood-sugar levels; Secretes insulin and glucagon Both hormones help regulate the concentration of glucose (sugar) in the blood.
Adrenal glands
Adrenal glands produce hormones(adrenaline) that help regulate your metabolism, immune system, blood pressure, response to stress and other essential functions.
Ovary
Ovaries secrete estrogens. Estrogens are the group of hormones responsible for female sexul development.
Testis
Testes secrete androgens. Androgens are responsible for male sex characteristics. Testosterone, the sex hormone produced by the testicles, is an androgen.
Cortisol is a steroid hormone that is produced by your 2 adrenal glands, which sit on top of each kidney. When you are stressed, increased cortisol is released into your bloodstream.
The secretion of cortisol is mainly controlled by three intercommunicating regions of the body; the hypothalamus in the brain, the pituitary gland and the adrenal gland.
Oxytocin (love hormone)
Oxytocin manages key aspects of the female and male reproductive systems, including labor and delivery and lactation, as well as aspects of human behavior.
Your hypothalamus makes oxytocin, but your posterior pituitary gland stores and releases it into your bloodstream.
Oxytocin also boosts empathy and prosocial behavior in adults.
Ghrelin
Involved in turning on hunger Ghrelin is a hormone your stomach produces and releases. It signals your brain when your stomach is empty and it’s time to eat.
Leptin
Involved in turning off hunger
Central Nervous System
The brain and spinal cord
The central nervous system’s responsibilities include receiving processing, and responding to sensory information
Afferent neurons are sensory neurons that carry nerve impulses from sensory stimuli towards the central nervous system and brain
The spinal cord
Complex cable of nerves that connects brain to rest of the body
Our communications superhighway
Carries motor impulse from the brin to internal organs and muscles
Carries sensory information from extremities and internal organs to the brain
All nerves that are not encased in bone
Everything but the brain and spinal cord
Is divided into two categories: somatic and autonomic
Link the body to the outside world
Somatic Nervous System
Somatic nervous system is a subdivision of peripheral nervous system that stretches throughout nearly every part of your body
The nerves in this system deliver information from your senses to your brain
The nerves also carry commands from your brain to your muscles so you can move around.
Controls voluntary muscle movement
Uses motor efferent neurons
Efferent neurons, also called motor neurons, are the nerve fibers responsible for carrying signals from the brain to the peripheral nervous system in order to initiate an action
Autonomic Nervous System
Controls the automatic functions of the body.
Divided into two categories: the sympathetic and the parasympathetic
Sympathetic Nervous System
Allows to deal with a range of extreme emotions and stressful events
Fight or Flight Response
Adrenal glands are stimulated to release certain stress-related hormones that automatically accelerates and target organs like:
Heart (heart rate), muscles (*dilates pupils), and lungs (rapid breathing ) to increase further efficiency
*Slows down Digestions
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Automatically slows the body down after a stressful event
Heart rate and breathing slow down, pupils constrict, and digestion speeds up
Reflexes
Reflex: a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.
A simple spinal reflex pathway is composed of a single sensory neuron and a single motor neuron. These often communicate through an interneuron.
The spinal cord alone is able to direct simple reflex action.
Neuroanatomy 神经解剖学 refers to the study of the parts and functions of cells
Two common types of neural cells in the brain are neurons (neural cells that transmit information) and glial (cells that provide structure, insulation, communication, and waste transport)
Dendrites: receive information
Soma: Contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell needed to sustain its life.
Soma/Cell body: process and integrate information
Axon: wire like structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body (Carry information)
Myelin Sheath: insulate speed up protect
Multiple sclerosis (MS): The myelin sheath is destroyed
Leads to diminished or complete loss of neural functioning in those damaged cells, particularly associated with muscle control and movement.
Terminal buttons (also called end buttons, terminal branches of axon, and synaptic knobs) – the branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitters. (transmit information)
Synapse (gap between neurons)
3 types of neurons
Sensory Receptor -> CNS
Relay CNE -> CNS
Motor CNS -> Effector
Sensory neurons
Or afferent neurons, act like one-way streets that carry traffic from the sense organs towards the brain.
Motor neurons
Or efferent neurons, form the one – way routes that transport messages away from the brain to the muscles, organs and glands.
Interneurons
Relay neurons or interneuron allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate
Interneurons
Make up the majority of our neurons
Relay. Messages from sensory neurons to other interneurons or motor neurons in complex pathways.
How does a neuron fire?
Resting potential
When the neuron has mostly negative ions inside and positive ions outside
(-70mV)
This negative balance can be easily upset
Action potential
When the cell becomes excited, it triggers, which reverses the charge and causes the electrical signal to race along the axon. (-55mV)
The movements of sodium and potassium ions across the membrane creates an action potential.
Absolute Threshold
If the excitatory signals, minus the inhibitory signals exceed a minimum intensity, called the absolute threshold, then action potential is realized.
Excitary signal – inhabitancy signals > minimal intensity
All or Nothing(none)
Once the action potential is released, there is no going back.
The axon either “fires” or it does not. This process is called the all-or-none principal.
Squeezing a trigger harder won’t make the bullet go faster.
Refractory Period
Each action potential is followed by a brief recharging period known as the refractory period.
After the refractory period, the neuron is capable of another action potential.
Much like waiting for the flash to recharge on a disposable camera before you can take another picture.
The Neural Impulse
Absolute refractory period
Period immediately after an action potential when another action potential cannot occur
Relative refractory period
Period following absolute refractory period when a neuron will only respond to a stronger than normal impulse.
Depolarization & Polarization
Depolarized describes an axon that is firing
Positive ions enter the axon, and cause other positive ions to move into the axon in the form of a neural impulse down the axon.
Repolarization refers to the change in membrane potential that returns it to a negative value just after the
y-axis Membrane potential
Resting potential
Action potential
Synaptic transmission: When the impulse reaches the axon terminal, the neuron can pass its chemical message to further neurons across the synaptic gap (synaptic cleft)
Receptors受体:sites on the dendrites that are designed to bon to and absorb a specific type of neurotransmitters molecule
Reuptake: the process by which unused neurotransmitter molecules are absorbed back into presynaptic neuron
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers. Their job is to carry chemical signals (“messages”) from one neuron (nerve cell) to the next target cell.
Acetylcholine (Ach)
Enables muscle action, learning and memory
Low -> Alzheimer
Dopamine
Influences movement, learning, attention and emotion
High -> Schizophrenia
Low -> Parkinson
Serotonin
Affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal
Low -> Depression Bipolar
Norepinephrine
Helps control alertness and arousal
GABA (gama-aminobutyric acid)
A major inhibitor neurotransmitter
Low -> Anxiety disorder
Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory
High -> migraine or seizure
Endorphins内啡肽
Feel good chemical
Your body releases endorphins when it feels pain or stress
Many of our most addictive drugs deal with endorphins
Also released during exercise
How does it work?
Neural Communication: drugs can be…
Agonists (excite) – make neuron fire
Neurotransmitter +
Antagonists (inhibit) – stop neural firing
Neurotransmitter -
Reuptake Inhibitors – block reuptake
Neurotransmitter +
Cocaine (reuptake inhibitor)
Prevents reabsorption of dopamine
Leads to heightened arousal of entire nervous system.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are a class of drugs.
On neuro system: Psychoactive drugs
Are substances that, when taken in or administered into one’s nervous system, affect mental processes.
Depressants
Drugs that reduce neural activity
Slow body function
Ecamples
Sleeping pills
Tranquilizers 镇静剂
Alcohol (Glutamate antagonist): reduced inhibition
Barbiturates
4 Categories of psychoactive drugs
Opioids 鸦片类药物 opiate
( a kind of depressants)
Depressant effect
Pain relief
- Endorphin agonist
Examples:
Morphine
Oxycodone
Heroin
Codeine
Stimulants 兴奋剂
Drugs that excite neural activity
Speed up body functions
“stimulate” the body
Examples:
Caffeine
Nicotine
Amphetamines
Cocaine
Hallucinogens (致幻剂)
Also called psychedelics Distort perceptions
Evoke hallucinations
Examples:
LSD
-Lysergic acid diethylamide
Marijuana (cannabis)
-THC
MDMA/XTC/Ecstasy:
Stimulants and hallucinogens
Tolerance: A person’s diminished response to a drug that is the result of repeated use.
Withdrawal: symptoms a person experiences when not using a substance, due to the body reacting to no longer having the substance.
Neuroplasticity is the ability of the brain to change throughout the course of life
The change occurs through the making and breaking of synaptic connections between neurons
The reasons for such changes are both genetic (normal pre-programmed development of the brain) and environmental.
Neuroplasticity – the ability of the brain to change itself in response to environmental demands.
Dendritic branching, Every time we learn something new, the neurons connect to create a new trance in the brain
Neural/Dendritic pruning, the process when a synapse is not used or is under-simulated.
Case study: Cut half hemisphere before 6 years old
The Brain Stem
Lower part of brain that connects brain to the spinal cord
Carry signals to and from all parts of the body
Regulates body functions such as consciousness, fatigue, heart rate, and blood pressure
Damage to the brain stem can cause loss of consciousness.
The brain stem is made up of:
Medulla
Pons
Reticula formation
Thalamus
Medulla Oblongata
Located just above the spinal cord
The medulla operates and autopilot without our conscious awareness, like most of our brainstem
Controls heart rate, breathing, blood pressure
Pons
Located just above the medulla.
Connects hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain together
Maintains the sleep-wake cycle
Involved in facial expressions.
Cerebellum
Located at the base of the skull
Means little brain
Regulates
Balance
Coordinates fine motor skills / thinking
Motor skill
Classied conditioning
Midbrain
Coordinates simple movements with sensory information
Coordinate functions necessary for survival
Reticulate function
Consciousness & aroused
Coma昏迷
Forebrain
Makes us human
Largest part of the brain
Made up of the Thalamus, Limbic System and Cerebral Cortex
Thalamus
In forebrain
Receives sensory information and sends them to appropriate areas of forebrain
Like a switchboard
Everything but smell
Limbic system
EMOTIONAL CONTROL CENTER of the brain
Hypothalamus
Pea sized in brain; big role
Maintain homeostasis稳态
Controls
Body temperature
Hunger, weight control
Thirst
Sleep cycle
Sexual Arousal (libido)
Endocrine System
Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)
Plays a major role in food intake, obesity and energy homeostasis
Dysfunctional VMH may lead to obesity
Hetherington % Ranson (1942)
Lesioned the VMH and rats began to overeat
Showed that this region is for satiety 饱腹感
Lateral Hypothalamus
When stimulated it makes you hungry
When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again.
Hippocampus & Amygdala
Hippocampus is involved in memory processing
Mnemonic device: Fi you saw a Hippo on Campus, you would remember it
Damage: amnesia
Amygdala is vital for our basic emotion
More involved in volatile emotions like anger
Cerebral Cortex
Top layer of our brain
Contains wrinkles called fissures
The fissures increase surface area of our brain
Made up of densely packed neurons we call “gray matter”
Glial Cells: support brain cells
Laid out it would be about the size of a large pizza.
Frontal Lobe
Responsible for organizing thoughts, personality, behavior, and emotional control
Contains Motor Cortex: sends signals to our body controlling muscle movements
Contains Broca’s Area: Responsible for controlling muscles that produce speech
Damage to Broca’s Area is called Broca’s Aphasia: damage to the area causes broken speech – halting with mispronounced words.
Behavior, Thoughts, decision-making personality
Temporal Lobes
Process sound sensed by our ears & interpreted in Auditory Cortex.
It also plays a role in interpreting meaning from visual stimuli and object recognition.
Contains Wernicke’s Area: Part of the left temporal lobe; involved in understanding the meaning of words; interprets written and spoken speech.
Wernicke’s Aphasia: unable to understand language: the syntax and grammar; person is able to speak fluently pronounce entirely wrong words correctly.
Parietal Lobes
Near the back and top of the head above the ears
Contain Somatosensory Cortex: receives incoming touch sensations from rest of the body
Controls the ability to read, writes, and understand spatial relationships
Most of the Parietal Lobes are made up of Association Areas.
Association Areas
Any areas not associated with receiving sensory information or coordinating muscle movements
The somatosensory cortex is the area of the brain responsible for processing sensory input from the body. It lies next to the primary motor cortex, which helps control purposeful movement.
Largest area of sensory cortex: Face
Largest number of sensory neurons: Lips
Occipital Lobes
In the back of our head
(mnemonic: eyes in the back of your head)
Handles visual input from eyes
LATERALIZED – predominantly on one side
Right half of each retina goes to left occipital lobe and vice versa
Contains Visual Cortes interprets messages from our eyes into images we can understand.
Spatial neglect or Unilateral neglect
Condition produced by damage to the right parietal and occipital lobes
Results in an inability to recognize objects or body parts in the left visuals field.
Contralateral (opposite side) controlled – left controls right side of body and vice versa.
Corpus Collosum attaches the two hemispheres of cerebral cortex
The split-brain research
Roger Sperry & Michael Gazzaniga
Lateralization
The division of functions between the two hemispheres of the cortex
Localization
Different parts of brain are responsible for different functions.
Corpus Callosum
It stretches across the midline of the brain, connection the left and right cerebral hemisphere.
Background
Split brain research, achieved by severing the corpus callosum (often a treatment for serve)
Aim
Whether two hemispheres have different functions.
Conclusion
This supports lateralization of language in the left hemisphere
Language system is most people are located in the left hemisphere.
The right hemisphere is not a poor relation to the dominant left hemisphere.
The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres to communicate with each other.
The right hemisphere perform better in task that involve visual construction
Both hemispheres dependently are capable of forming an emotional response.
Tools of examining brain structure and function
Case study
Invasive techniques
Noninvasive techniques
Electroencephalograph (EEG) – monitors electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp
EEG has a perfect temporal resolution and is silent
It offers extremely low spatial resolution
CT Scans / CAT
Computerized Tomography Scan (CT) – computer enhanced X ray of brain structure
Multiple x rays shot
Make vivid horizontal slice of brain
Used to look for abnormalities in brain
MRI & fMRI Scan
Magnetic Resonance Imaging Scan (MRI) – uses magnetic fields, radio waves, & computerized enhancements to map out brain structure
Better images than CT scans
2-dimensional pictures with high resolution
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging – consists of several variations of MRI technology that monitor blood and oxygen flow in the brain to identify areas of high activity
Provides structural & functioning information in same image
Monitors brain activity in real time
Invasive: Position Emission Tomography Scan(PET)
Examine brain function, mapping out actual activity in the brain over time
Radioactively ragged chemicals (glucose) introduced into brain
Serve as markers for blood flow or metabolic activity
Can be monitored by X rays
Research: Invasive
Invasive Lesioning
Lesioning – destroying a piece of brain
Inserting electrode into brain structure
Research tool: Autopsy
Examine the brain and body after death
To determine brain function
1.5 Sleep
Circadian rhythm
The biological clock; regular bodily rhythm that occur in a cycle of approximate 24-25 hours.
Photoreceptors, hypothalamus, pineal gland are involved in regulation circadian rhythms.
Jet lag, also called jet lag disorder, is a temporary sleep problem that can affect anyone who quickly travels across several time zones.
The term shift work refers to any work schedule that falls outside the hours of 7 am and 6 am. Shift work can include evening, night, and early morning shifts, as well as fixed or rotating schedules.
Sleep stages
Electrooculography (EOG)
It is a technique for measuring frequency of the eye movements. Horizontal and vertical eye movements could be detected.
REM sleep rapid eye movement sleep;
A recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active. (Sleep paralysis)
Fast breathing, relatively high heart rate, relatively high blood pressure.
Non-rapid eye movement sleep (nREM)
The stages of sleep in which our eyes are still, it is also called quiescent (quiet) sleep. This is not associated with dreaming
NREM-1
When you are in bed with your eyes closed, the researcher in the next room sees on the EEG the relatively slow alpha waves of your awake but relaxed state. This is called NREM-1 sleep.
Hallucinations – sensory experiences that occur without a sensory stimulus. You may have a sensation of falling (at which moment your body may suddenly jerk) or of floating weightlessly
NREM-2
You the relax more deeply and begin about 20 minutes of NREM-2 sleep, with its periodic sleep spindles – bursts of rapid, rhythmic brainwave activity. Although you could still be awakened without too much.
Clearly asleep
NREM-3
Then you transition to the sleep of NREM-3. During this slow-wave sleep, which lasts for about 30 minutes, your brain emits large, slow delta waves and you are hard to awaken. (It is at the end of the deep)
About every 90 minutes, you cycle through four distinct sleep stages: 1-2-3-2-1-REM, then restart.
Older people sleep less hour than young people.
Sleep disorders
Insomnia – persistent problems in either falling or staying asleep. The result is tiredness and increased risk of depression.
Treatment
The medication known as ramelteon acts as a melatonin receptor agonist, and can be used to treat insomnia related to sleep onset.
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
Treatment
Medicines for narcolepsy include: Stimulants. Drugs that stimulate the central nervous system are the primary treatment to help people with narcolepsy stay awake during the day. Your health care provider may recommend modafinil.
Sleep apnea a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.
Treatment for sleep apnea
Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)
Night terrors
A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep.
REM sleep behavior disorder is a sleep disorder in which you physically and vocally act out vivid, often unpleasant dreams during REM sleep.
Movement during sleep, including kicking, punching, arm flailing or jumping from bed.
Somnambulism/Sleepwalking – another NREM-3 sleep disorder – and sleepwalking are childhood disorders and, like narcolepsy, they run in families.
Theories of sleep and dreaming
1. Sleep protects
2. Sleep helps us recuperate
Sleep helps restore the immune system and repair brain tissue.
The restorative theory states that sleep allows for the body to repair and replete cellular components necessary for biological functions that become depleted throughout an awaken way.
3. Sleep helps restore and rebuild our fading memories of the day’s experiences
Sleep consolidate our memories
Memory consolidation refers to the stages that occur when a memory becomes permanent. Proper memory function requires each of these phases.
4. Sleep feeds creative thinking
5. Sleep supports growth
During deep sleep, the pituitary gland releases a growth hormone that is necessary for …
Dream of a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind.
Information – processing theory
Dreams help us sort out the day’s events and consolidate our memories.
But why do we sometimes dream about things we have not experienced and about past events.
Neural activation theory / activation-synthesis theory
REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories.
The individual’s brain is weaving the stories, which still tells us something about the dreamer.
Lucid dreams are when you know that you’re dreaming while you’re asleep. You’re aware that the events flashing through your rain aren’t really happening. But the dream feels vivid and real. You may even be able to control how the action unfolds, as if you’re directing a movie in your sleep.
Sensation
The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
Transduction
The process of converting incoming physical/chemical energy into a neural code that be processed.
Absolute Threshold
Smallest amount of energy that will produce a sensation about 50% of the time
Children have lower absolute thresholds than adults.
Differential threshold / just noticeable difference
Differential threshold is the minimum required difference between two stimuli for a person to notice change 50% of the time
Sensory adaptation
Sensory adaptation refers to the way our senses adjust to different stimuli
With dark adaptation, there is an increase in sensitivity) with time in the dark
With light adaptation, the eye has to quickly adapt to the background illumination to be able to distinguish objects in this background. During light adaptation retinal sensitivity is lost.
Habituation
Reduce response to something that once elicited a stronger response
Sensory receptors respond to stimulation, but no signal is sent to the cortex. 
Light enters the eye through the cornea, which bends light to help provide focus.
The light then passes through the pupil, a small adjustable opening.
Iris, a colored muscle that controls the size of the pupil by dilating or constricting in response to light intensity.
Behind the pupil is a transparent lens that focuses incoming light rays into an image on the retina. The lens focuses the rays by changing its curvature and thickness in a process called accommodation (The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina).
Retina, a multilayered tissue on the eyeball’s sensitive inner surface.
Photoreceptors: light-sensitive cells (neurons) in the retina that convert light energy into neural energy, the rods and cones.
Rods retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond
Cones retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations
Cones cluster in and around the fovea, the retina’s area of central focus.
The Fovea is the area of sharpest vision (Helps to see fine details)
Central focal point on the retina in the eye around which the highest cones cluster.
Visual transduction
When struck by light energy, cones and rods in the retina generate neural signals that then activate the bipolar cells. The bipolar cells in turn would activate the neighboring ganglion cells, whose axons twine together like the strands of a rope to form the optic nerve.
Optic Nerve: The bundle of neurons that carries the visual information from the retina to the brain
This is where the stimulus, once changed into a neural impulse, gets passed onto the brain.
The Blind spot: The point where the optic nerve exits the eye and where there are no photoreceptors
Any stimulus that falls on this area cannot be seen.
Color Perception
Wavelength -> hue
Amplitude -> Saturation (rich, intensity)
Two-stage theory
Trichromatic Theory (RGB)
Opponent – Process Theory
The opponent process theory suggests that the way humans perceive colors is controlled by three opposing
Blue versus yellow
Red versus green
Black versus white
Negative Afterimage
Feature detectors nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
Feature detection is a process by which the nervous system sorts or filters complex natural stimuli in order to extract behaviorally relevant cues that have a high probability of being associated with important
Color blindness is the result of a lack of functioning photoreceptors for color. People who are color-blind cannot distinguish excitatory from inhibitory signals or may have unresponsive cones.
Monochromat
Black/white/gray
Dichromat
Red/Green
Yellow/blue
Trichromat
All colors in visual spectrum
Auditory Sensation
Audition
Wavelength+ Frequency- Pitch-
Amplitude+ Loudness+
Pitch: at one’s experienced highness or lowness, depends on frequency.
Frequency: the number of complete wavelength that pass a point in a given time (e.g. per second), depends on the wavelength
Loudness: sound intensity, determined by the height (or amplitude) of soundwaves.
Timbre
Timbre is what makes a particular musical instrument or human voice have a different sound from another
Sound waves enter the outer ear
Sound waves cause the eardrum to vibrate
Three tiny bones (ossicles) in the middle ear amplify the vibrations and send them to the inner ear.
Vibrations hit the cochlea’s basilar membrane which is lined with hair cells; hair cells moves and trigger impulses at the base of the nerve cells, whose fibers converge to form the auditory nerve.
That nerve sends neural messages to the thalamus and onto the auditory cortex.
Deafness can occur from damage to the rat structure or the neural pathway.
Damage to the cochlea’s hair cell receptors or their auditory nerves can cause sensorineural hearing loss (or nerve deafness)
Conductive deafness refers to injury to the outer or middle ear structures, such as the eardrum and middle ear bones.
Cochlear implants
Work by translating sounds into electrical signals that are transmitted to the cohlea and, via the auditory nerve, onto the brain.
Theories of audition
20Hz – 20000Hz
Frequency Theory (how er hear low-pitched sounds): 16Hz – 1000Hz
The rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone.
Basilar membrane has same vibration with stirrup, which is less than 1000 per second.
Place Theory(how we hear high-pitched sounds):
The hair cells in the cochlea’s basilar membrane respond to different frequencies of sound based on where they are located in the cochlea; brain determines a pitch by recognizing the specific place (on the membrane)
2000 – 20000Hz
The neural volley principle: explains how we hear pitches in the middle range (combination of the two theories)
A neuron may fire and then stop firing when a second neuron fires. The first neuron then fires again, while the second one does not. This type of sequence is then repeated in response to auditory stimuli. (500-5000Hz)
Sound localization describes how we identify where sounds in our environment are coming from.
Chemical sensation
Gustation is the sense of taste, and types of tastes include sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus
Oleogustus: The Unique Taste of Fat
Taste buds 味蕾 are located on the papillae, which re bumps on your tongue. (Chemical senses)
The number of taste receptors on the tongue is related to how sensitive people are to tastes, classifying them as supertasters, medium tasters, or nontasters.
Super tasters are an extra kind of taste cell in their taste buds. Taste things to a more extreme level.
A medium-taster who has an average ability to sense different flavors.
A non-taster is someone who has less taste perception than a medium-taster.
Ordor molecules trigger combinations of receptors, the receptor cells at the top of nasal cavity send messages to the brain’s olfactory bulb, then to the temporal lobe’s primary smell cortex, and to parts of the limbic system.
As people age, their sense of smell diminishes.
body senses
Pain reflects bottom-up sensations and top-down processes.
Gate Control Theory
The gating mechanism occurs in the spinal cord, where both small nerve fibres (pain fibres) and large nerve fibres (fibres for touch, pressure and other skin sensations) carry information to.
The gate in the spinal cord differentiates between fiber types when carrying pain signals.
Specifically, pain signals traveling via small nerve fibers are allowed to pass while signals sent by large nerve fibers are blocked.
Phantom limb sensation/pain occurs when people who have lost limbs report sensation or pain where the limb used to be.
Mirror box is a new treatment which is a box with two mirrors in the center (on facing each way), to help relieve phantom limb pain.
Vestibular sense
We monitor our body’s position and movement, and maintain our balance with our vestibular sense.
Three semicircular canals in the inner ear give the brain information about our orientation.
Cerebellum is also responsible for vestibular sense.
Kinesthetic sense
Kinesthetic sense gives us feedback about the position and movement of our body parts. Receptors in our muscles and joints send information to our brain about our limbs.
Cerebellum
Sensory interaction
Synesthesia/Sensory interaction: the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.
Embodied cognition
Embodied cognition: in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.
Structures within the skin and brain process and/or transduce touch stimuli. The sensation of “hot” is produced by the activation of warm and cold receptors in the skin.
U2 Cognition
2.1 Perception
Sensation the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
Perception the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information
Bottom-up processing
First, we sense the stimulus.
Then, we perceive and process the experience
Top-down processing
First, we perceive and process the experience
Then, we sense the stimulus. (general to the specific)
Factors affecting perception
Attention
Selective attention
Allows one to focus on certain specific sensory information, while ignoring other sensory input.
Inattentional blindness or perceptual blindness (rarely called inattentive blindness) occurs when an individual fails to perceive an unexpected stimulus in plain sight, purely as a result of a lack of attention.
Cocktail party effect
The cocktail party effect is the ability to focus one’s auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli.
Divided attention
Divided attention could be defined as our brain’s ability to attend to two different stimuli at the same time.
Perceptual Set
A perceptual set refers to a predisposition to perceive things in a certain way. In other words, we often tend to notice only certain aspects of an object or situation while ignoring other details.
Schemas
Mental frameworks for organizing out understanding of the world around us.
Schemas are based on our experiences and can guide our perceptual sets.
Context effect
A context effect is an aspect of cognitive psychology that describes the influence of environmental factors on one’s perception of a stimulus.
Gestalt principles
Grouping
The perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.
- Similarity
In gestalt, similar elements are visually grouped, regardless of their proximity to each other. They can be grouped by color, shape or size.
- Proximity principle
- Continuity / Continuation
The law of Continuity posits that the human eye will follow the smoothest path when viewing lines, regardless of how the lines were actually drawn.
- Connectedness
Connectedness is when we see connections in disjointed objects.
- Closure
It’s the idea that your brain will fill in the missing parts of a design or image to create a whole
- Figure-Ground
The figure-ground principle states that people instinctively perceive objects as either being in the foreground or the background.
Depth Perception
The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.
Visual cliff experiments.
Monocular cues
(depth cues available to each eye separately)
Relative size
Interposition
It occurs when there is overlapping of objects.
Linear Perspective
When objects of known distance subtend a smaller and smaller angle, it is interpreted as being further away. Parallel lines converge with increasing distance such as roads, railway lines, electric wires, etc.
Light and Shade/shadow
Highlights and shadows can provide information about an object’s dimensions and depth.
Texture gradient
How much detail you can see in a image
Relative motion
When the viewer is moving, stationary objects appear to move in different directions and at different speeds depending on their location.
Binocular cues
Depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the cues
Retinal Disparity
Images from each eye differ
Closer the Object, the larger the disparity (difference)
Further the object, the smaller the disparity (difference)
Convergence
Neuromuscular cue
Two eyes move inward for near objects.
Two eyes straighten for further objects.
Visual Perception Optical illusions
Perceptual constancy
Human to see familiar objects as having standard shape, size, color, or location regardless of changes in the angle of perspective, distance, or lighting.
Size constancy occurs when an observer is familiar with an object, so that the object appears to have a constant size.
Shape constancy refers to the phenomenon in which the percept of the shape of a given object remains constant
Color constancy refers to our ability to perceive colors as relatively constant over varying illuminations.
Stroboscopic effect
When we perceive movement in slightly varying images shown in rapid succession.
The term phi phenomenon is used in a narrow sense for an apparent motion that is observed if two nearby optical stimuli are presented in alternation with a relatively high frequency.
Optical illusions
In visual perception, an optical illusion (also called a visual illusion) is an illusion caused by the visual system and characterized by a visual percept that arguably appears to differ from reality.
Physical illusion
Distortions of scale
Based on manipulation of for depth perception monocular cues
Müller-Lyer illusion
Ponzo illusion
Zo..llner illusion
Psychological illusion
Negative afterimaqine
Mach bands
3
Cognitive illusion
Mis match between what you perceive and what you sense
Top-down processing
Perceptual set
Context cues
Manipulation of a Gestalt principle
Structure of thinking
Concept
Mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people
Address
Country, city, street, home
Zip codes
Types of Concepts
There are two types of concepts
Natural concepts
Mental classifications that develop out of our everyday experiences
Artificial concepts
Concepts defined by a set of rules of characteristics
Prototype(典型例子)
The best example of a category
Exemplar
A great example from experience
Other types of thinking
Convergent vs. divergent thinking
Convergent thinking focuses on reaching one, well-defined solution to a problem, while divergent thinking involves more creativity and accepts multiple solutions to a problem.
(problem-solving)
Informal Reasoning - fast thinking
Informal reasoning ability Is the ability to reason based on common sense, experience, and intuition
Top-down processing
Involves perceiving things based on your prior experiences and knowledge
Deductive reasoning is a logical approach where you progress from general ideas to specific conclusions.
Heuristics are mental shortcuts that allow people to solve problems and make judgments quickly and efficiently.
Type of heuristics
Representativeness heuristic刻板印象
Thinking that a new thing that has a few characteristics of a schema, will then fit nicely into that schema (stereotyping)
Availability Heuristic
What comes to mind quickly is deemed significant – sometimes incorrectly
The availability heuristic describes our tendency to think that whatever is easiest for us to recall should provide the best context for future predictions.
Confirmation bias
Just think politics. Many of us already have our opinions. And we watch or subscribe to sources that support our opinions.
Hindsight bias
“I knew it all along” Before an event
Anchoring bias
A powerful or emotional thought weighs down the rest of the mind.
Overconfidence
Tendency to be more confident than correct
Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs and judgments
Schema: General frameworks that provide expectations about topics, events, objects, people and situations.
Assimilation vs Accommodation
Assimilation: The process by which people translate incoming information into a form they can understand
Accommodation: The process by which people adapt current knowledge structures in response to new experiences
Mental Set
Similar to schema, it is a way of thinking that has worked before.
Mental Model
A way of thinking about how things interact
Priming
Activation of memory associations, sometimes unconsciously precious exposures may influence future thoughts/behaviors
Fixedness/Fixation
Not being able to see the problem form a different point of view
Functional Fixedness
Functional fixedness is a cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object only in the way it is traditionally used.
Illusory Correlation
The illusory correlation occurs when someone believes that there is a relationship between two people, events or behaviors, even though there is no logical way to connect them.
Framing effect (wording effect)
Words matter. Framing effect is a cognitive bias in which the brain makes decisions about information depending upon how the information is presented.
Belief Bias
The tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning
Belief Perseverance
Even when presented with concrete, convincing evidence to the contrary, a person will hold onto their now wrong beliefs.
Gambler’s fallacy
The gambler’s fallacy is the belief that the chances of something happening with a fixed probability become higher or lower as the process is repeated.
The sunk cost fallacy is our tendency to continue with an endeavor we’ve invested money, effort or time into even if the current costs outweigh the benefits.
Function of thinking
Formal Reasoning – slow thinking (Problem thinking)
Formal reasoning is characterized by rules of logic and mathematics.
(Bottom-up) processing involves perceiving based on the information that is available through the senses.
Algorithm
Methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
Artificial intelligence
Similar to algorithm. Facial recognition, auto complete, or self-driving cars use step by step processes to find patterns.
Inductive reasoning is a method of drawing conclusions by going from the specific to the general
Syllogism 三段论
An instance of a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions (premises)
Diagnosis
Eliminating all of the wrong answers will leave you with the right answer
The phrase “executive function” refers to a set of skills. These skills underlie the capacity to plan ahead and meet goals, display self-control, follow multiple-step directions even when interrupted, and stay focused despite distractions, among others.
2.3 introduction to memory
Memory: A system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information
Information processing model
The human brains takes essentially meaningless information and turns it into meaningful patterns.
It does this through three steps
Putting it in: encoding
Keeping it in: storage
Getting it out: retrieval
Multi-Store Model
Difference between 3 memory stores
Encoding
Encoding is the act of getting information into our memory system
Capacity
The amount of information that can be held
Duration
How long the information is stored for
Sensory memory
Duration: 0.25-0.5 second
Capacity: all sensory experience (v. larger capacity)
Encoding: sense specific (e.g. different stores for each sense)
Sensory memory is the memory of immediate events. These memories tend not to last and disappear unless they are given attention
The condition that has to be met for information to transfer from sensory memory to short-term memory is attention
Type of sensory memory
Iconic memory is very short-term sensory memory in which a person recall visual images for just a few milliseconds after the physical image has disappeared
Echoic memory is the sensory memory for things you hear.
Visual Stimulation-Iconic memory
Auditory Stimulation-echoic memory
Tactile Stimulation-tactile sensory memory
Olfactory Stimulation-olfactory memory
Gustatory Stimulation-gustatory memory
Short-term memory
Duration: 0-30 seconds
Capacity: 7 +/- 2 items
Encoding: mainly auditory
Short-term memory refers to the memory systems in the brain involved in remembering pieces of information for a short period of time, often up to 30 seconds.
The condition for increasing the duration of short-term memory and transferring information
Long-term memory
Duration: Unlimited
Capacity: Unlimited
Encoding: Mainly Semantic 语义 (but can be visual and auditory)
Long-term memory is the memory for past events that can last for the life-time of a person
Semantic memory refers to the memory of meaning understanding general knowledge about the world.
The more a memory is utilized, the more potential strength that neuron has, called long-term potentiation (LTP)
Working Memory Model (Baddeley and Hitch)
Differences between STM and working memory
Shor-term memory can only hold information, working memory can both retain and process information
Working memory is short-term memory. However, instead of all information going into one single store, there are different systems for different types of information
Different system could work together
Central Executive
Central Executive drives the whole system (e.g., the boss of working memory) and allocates data to the subsystems: the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad. It also deals with cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem-solving.
Phonological loop 语音循环
The phonological loop is a component of working memory model that deals with spoken and written material.
Titis subdivided into the phonological store (which holds
information in a speech-based form) and the articulatory process (which allows us to repeat verbal information in a loop)
Phonological Store 语音存储 (inner ear) processes speech perception and stores spoken words we hear for 1-2 seconds.
Articulatory control process 语音控制过程（inner voice） processes speech production.
and rehearses and stores verbal information from the phonological store.
Phonological awareness is the ability to recognize and manipulate the spoken parts of sentences and words.
Episodic Buffer 情节缓冲
The Episodic Buffer refers to a component of Model of Working Memory.
The episodic buffer is a subsystem and is theorized to integrate the other functions, known as the phonological loop (information heard) and visuospatial sketchpad (information seen) with a sense of time, so that things occur in a continuing sequence, like a story from a book or movie.
This theory is used to explain why memories can be experienced as a
coordinated sequence（协调的事件序列）of events rather than as discrete
segments(离散的片段）
Working memory / STM
Working memory is subject to two limitations: limited capacity and short duration.
We do have coping mechanisms, however:
Chunking
Rehearsal
◦ A chunk is any memory pattern or meaningful unit of memory.
◦ By creating these chunks, a process called chunking, we can fit more information into the seven available slots of working memory.
Example: 5036574100 vs. 503-657-4100
Rehearsal
◦ Another memory technique is called maintenance rehearsal. This is a process where information is repeated to keep it from fading while in working memory.
This process does not involve active elaboration-assigning meaning to the information.
2.4 memory encoding
Levels of Processing (Craik and Lockhart, 1972)
◦ In working memory, information can be elaborated on, or connected with long term memories.
The Levels-of-processing theory -The idea that the way information is encoded affects how well it is remembered. The deeper the level of processing, the easier the information is to recall
Types of processing
Shallow processing – processing information based on its surface characteristics
Deep processing – focus on the meaning with deeper elaboration
Encoding-3 types
• When we are exposed to stimuli and encode information, we do it in three ways:
- Semantic Encoding
encoding of meaning
Including meaning of words
- Acoustic Encoding/ Phonemic encoding
encoding of sound
especially sound of words
- Visual Encoding/structural encoding
encoding of picture images
Time in encoding
Massed practice – try to encode all at once (ex: cramming)
Distributed practice – encode over multiple time periods; the longer, the better (ex: daily review sessions)
Spacing effect = distributed practice -> long-term retention vs. massed practice repetitions spaced in time tend to produce stronger memories than repetitions massed closer together in time
Testing effect = retrieving info for assessments > restudying or rereading
The testing effect is a psychological phenomenon that refers to an enhancement in the long-term retention of information as a result of taking a memory test
Order effect in memory
Serial position effect – the middle items are the least remembered
Recency effect – the last items in a list are remembered best immediately after presentation
Primacy effect – the first items in a list are remembered best in the long-term (encoded in LTM)
Organizing effect
Chunking – clustering items into units, especially if meaningful
Mnemonics – memory devices, often using association or imagery
Method of loci – A mnemonic technique that works by placing an image of each item to be remembered at particular points along an imaginary journey through a location
Hierarchies – creating categories with subdivisions
The hierarchies’ theory contends that long-term memory is organized though a hierarchical arrangements of concepts.
Dual track memory system (type of processing)
Serial processing
Only one process occurs at any given time, one after the other
Parallel processing
Multiple tracks of brain processes occurring at the same time.
Parallel processing
Effortful processing
explicit (declarative) memories, such as experiences and facts explained through information-processing (3-stage) model
- Explicit memory is the conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts.
• Episodic memory is the memory of everyday events that can be explicitly stated or conjured. (events)
• Semantic memory refers to general world knowledge that humans have accumulated throughout their lives (facts)
Automatic processing
Implicit (non-declarative) memories encoded unconsciously, such as time, space, frequency
Includes procedural memory and classical conditioning
Procedural memory
Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory (unconscious, long-term memory) which aids the performance of particular types of tasks without conscious awareness of these previous experiences.
Prospective memory is a type of memory related to future actions.
A flashbulb memory (FM) is a vivid, enduring memory for how one learned about a surprising, shocking event. It thus involves memory for the source of event information, as opposed to memory for the event itself.
Autobiographical memory refers to memory for one’s personal history
Self reference effect
When people are asked to remember information when it is related in some way to themselves, the recall rate can be improved.
How to prolong storage?
Maintenance rehearsal means rehearsing information over time
Elaborative rehearsal involves thinking about the meaning of the information and connecting it to other information already stored in memory
Biological bases of memory
Long-term potentiation
Explicit memory/Declarative memory:
Memory for experiences and facts
Associated with hippocampus (temporal lobe) and frontal lobe
Episodic memory:
Is supported by the circuitry of the medial temporal lobe (MTL), including the hippocampus
Implicit memory:
Memory for procedures, conditioning, timing
Cerebellum associated with classical conditioning,
Memory for procedures, conditioning, timing
Basal ganglia
Emotion Memory
The limbic system is the center of emotion in the brain, including the hippocampus and amygdala
Flashbulb memory
Not immune to alteration
Usually a very personal experience, ex: first kiss
Can be share, ex: 9/11
2.6 Memory retrieval
2 types of retrieval
Recognition
A retrieval method in which one must identify information that is provided, which has previously been presented
Recall
Retrieving or “pulling out” previous learning; declines with age
Recall is more difficult than recognition
Relearning
Improved retrieval with repeated learning
Overlearning
Practice after learning a skill to make it more resilient to forgetting
Retrieval Cues
Serve as connection points to access a memory, such as smell, sounds, or visual elements.
Context-dependent memory
Revisiting the location of an experience serves as a cue
State-dependent memory
What we experience in one state (ex: headache) could be remembered better the next time we are in that state
Encoding specificity principal: the more closely the retrieval clues match way the information wax encoded, the better the information will be remembered
Mood-congruent memory: a theory which says we tend to selectively remember memories that match (are congruent with) our current mood.
Tip-of-the-tongue effect (lethologica)
Tip of the tongue is the phenomenon of failing to retrieve a word or term from memory, combined with partial recall
2.7 Forgetting and memory distortion
Forgetting
Encoding Failure
Storage Decay
Retrieval Failure
Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve
Stored information that is not accessible
Prospective memory预期记忆
Memory to do with something in the future
May be assisted with retrieval cues
Interference - some information blocks the recall of other info
Proactive interference
Forward-acting
Øprior information disrupts learning new information
Retroactive interference
Backward-acting
Ønew learning disrupts recalling old information
Amnesia - temporary or permanent loss of memory
- Retrograde amnesia
inability to remember past information or experiences procedures remain intact ex: blow to head leading to forgetting recent events
- Anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories
- Source amnesia
attributing an experience to the wrong source.
inability to recall where, when, or how one has learned knowledge that has been acquired and retained.
- Infantile Amnesia
Infantile or childhood amnesia is the inability of human adults to remember episodic experiences that occurred during the first few years of life (generally 0-3 years) and the tendency to have sparse recollection of episodic experiences that occurred before age 10.
Alzheimer’s disease
Ach decrease
Psychodynamic theorists believe that information or memories can be forgotten to defend the ego from distress (repression).
Dé jà vu- the feeling that you have experienced something before.
Reconstructive model
Reconstructive memory is the theory of memory that memory is not exactly of what is encoded and stored but are affected by prior knowledge and prior knowledge in the form of schema
Schema theory
Our mind has mental frameworks that help organize information
Misinformation effect: incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
Findings: Participants who were asked the “smashed” question though the cars were going faster than those who were asked the “hit” question.
Eyewitness testimony might be biased by leading questions.
Memory reconstruction
The imagination inflation effect is a type of memory distortion defined as an increased tendency to falsely remember that an item has been’ seen, or an action has been performed, when it has only been imagined.
2.8 Intelligence and achievements
Relative: defined in relation to the same abilities in a comparison group (usually age)
Hypothetically constructed: It is unobservable, but instead inferred from behavior
Psychometrics – Literally means measuring the mind
Speed of processing is easily measured and it does seem to be positively correlated with intelligence
Catell’s theory of intelligence
Fluid intelligence
The ability to solve new problems, use logic in new situations, and identify patterns
Decreases with age
Crystallized intelligence
The ability to use learned knowledge and experience
Increases with age
Examples of the use of crystallized intelligence include vocabulary exams, remembering history
The Flynn Effect – over time, (decades) the average IQ of a given society rises
This means that what was once the mean score needs to be recalibrated校准
Savant syndrome – A genius-like ability in a very narrow area.
Related to Autism Spectrum Disorder
Stereotype Threat
Members of a group who thought to be “less than” in certain areas will often perform worse In that area than members of a different group
Alfred Binet (1857 – 1911)
Came up with the first test to classify mental abilities
To identify students who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum
Mental age – at what level a child is operating. 7 years old, 8 years old.
Chronological age – the actual age of a child.
MA/CA * 100 = IQ
Disadvantage of Binet’s theory: inappropriate for adults
David Wechsler (1869 – 1981)
Wechsler IQ test that measured verbal comprehension and performance skills (non-verbal)
He valued Non-Verbal performance. Spatial awareness, or pattern work
Howard Gardner
Charles Spearman (1863 - 1945)
Thought intelligence was a general factor behind all of our mental ability. This is tested on Standard IQ test
Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory
· G factor: the ability to reason and solve problems; general intelligence
S factor: the ability to excel in certain areas; specific intelligence
Factor analysis
Statistical procedure used to identify clusters or groups of related items (latent carriable or factors) on a test
Group differences in intelligence
Males and females tend to have the same average intelligence test scores
Girls are better spellers, more verbally fluent, better at locating objects, better at detecting emotions, and more sensitive to touch, taste, and color; Boys outperform girls at spatial ability and related mathematics.
Racial and ethnic groups differ in their average intelligence test scores. -environmental differences.
Extremes of Intelligence
The mentally retarded (IQ 70)
Individuals with high intelligence (IQ 130)
High intelligence score:
Brain size (especially in the frontal and parietal lobes), Ample gray / white matter enable efficient communication between brain circuits
Speed of neural processing
Speed of perception
Unhealthy living conditions
Deficits: malnutrition, inadequate access to health care
Down syndrome
Nature and nurture debate in intelligence
Genetic Influences
Studies of twins, family members, and adopted children together support the idea that there is a significant genetic contribution to intelligence
Schooling Effects
Schooling is an experience that pays dividends, which is reflected in intelligence scores
Increased schooling correlates with higher intelligence scores.
Socioeconomic influences
Poverty, discrimination, and educational inequities can negatively influence intelligence scores of individuals and societal groups around the world
Emotional Intelligence (El) is the ability to manage both your own emotions and understand the emotions of people around you.
4 Components of Emotional Intelligence:
Perceiving emotions
Reasoning with emotions Understanding emotions
Managing emotions
Creativity:
Correlates somewhat with intelligence.
Original, valuable and divergent
A high IQ alone does not guarantee creativity.
Sternberg identified five components of divergent thinkers and creativity
Standardization
A test is said to be standardized when it is administered using consistent procedures and environment
Norms: scores from a pretest group of people distributed mostly around the mean on the normal curve.
Reliability
The consistency of a study, task or measurement
To establish reliability researchers establish different procedures:
Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into two equal halves and assessing how consistent the scores are.
Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on two occasions to measure consistency.
Standardization
Operational definition
Inter-observer reliability
Replication
Split-half reliability
Test-retest reliability
Validity
Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Reliability is the predeterminant of validity.
◦ Validity of a test refers to what the test is supposed to measure or predict.
◦ Content Validity: evaluates how well an instrument (like a test) covers all relevant parts of the construct it aims to measure
Construct Validity: Construct validity is about how well a test measures the concept it was designed to evaluate, a construct is a theoretical concept, theme, or idea
Controls of confounding variables in experiment
Operational definition
Content validity
Construct validity
Criterion validity
Concurrent validity
Face Validity
Criterion validity/Predictive validity: is a type of validity that examines whether scores on one test are predictive of performance on another.
Concurrent validity shows you the extent of the agreement between two measures or assessments taken at the time
Face validity: the degree to which a procedure especially a psychological test or assessment, appears effect in terms of its stated aims.
Aptitude tests 能力测试 assume that individuals’ success or failure in specific areas based on their innate characteristics, which could also measures a student’s potential ability.
An Achievement test 成就测试 is an assessment of developed knowledge or skill. The most common type of achievement test Is a standardized test, such as the SAT, required for college entry in the US.
Fixed mindset
Growth mindset
Unit 3 Development and learning
3.1 Themes and Methods in Developmental Psychology
Developmental Psychology
A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive and social change throughout the life span
It looks at three debates
Nature vs. Nurture
Continuity vs. Discontinuity
Stability vs. Change
Two big questions about heredity and environment
Nature refers to the effects of heredity
Nurture to the influence of environment
Continuity View
The continuity view says that change is gradual
The discontinuity view sees development as:
More abrupt-a succession of changes
Produces different behaviors in different age-specific life periods called stages.
Stability vs. Change
Whether personality traits that are present in an individual at birth remain constant or change throughout the life span
Placenta 胎盘 – Oxygen and nutrients
Also Teratogens -> chemical cause harm on baby
Nicotine, Alcohol
The Newborn
Preferences
human voices and faces
Face-like images->
smell and sound of mother
Reflexes
• Used by pediatricians to determine whether or not an infant’s nervous system is working properly
Rooting – when you touch a baby’s cheek it will turn toward your hand, open its mouth, and search for the nipple
Developmental norms / Developmental milestones are used to assess whether infants, toddlers, children, and/or adolescents are developing cognitive, communication, motor, socioemotional, and adaptive skills at approximately the same rate as their peers.
Maturation is the process of growth and development that human beings go through regarding the changes that occur from birth until death
Physical development in infancy and childhood happens in generally the same order, but the timing of the development can vary.
Motor development is often broadly divided into gross motor and fine motor skills.
Gross motor skills pertain to skills involving large muscle movements, such as independent sitting, crawling, walking, or running.
Fine motor skills involve use of smaller muscles, such as grasping, object manipulation, or drawing.
Konrad Lorenz: Imprinting
Imprinting refers to a well-researched phenomenon within animals where they form an extremely close and dependent bond with the first animal they see after being born
Critical Period
When a child must learn something, after which plasticity is severely limited
Sensitive Period
When the brain is best able to do something
The main physical and psychological milestones that occur in adolescence are the adolescent growth spurt and puberty, in which reproductive ability develops.
Adolescents develop primary and secondary sex characteristics during this time, such as menarche and sperm Arche
Adulthood spans most of the lifespan
And is characterized by a general leveling off
And then a varying decline in reproductive ability (i.e., menopause), mobility, flexibility, reaction time, and visual and auditory sensory acuity.
Gender and Sexual Orientation
Gender roles: expected behaviors for males and females; based on culture (i.e., differences in how men and women are supposed to act)
Gender stereotypes: a schema children develop about the behavior of people based on their gender (i.e., differences in how we think men and women are)
Stereotype: affixed, oversimplified, and often biased belief about a groups of people
Social norms are the unwritten rules and expectations that dictate how individuals should behave in a articular social group or society
Gender schema theory
Children actively form mental categories (schemas) for masculinity and femininity, recognize their own gender role, and select activities that match that role
Sex-typed individuals identify with their gender and process information through the lens of that gender schema
Cross-type individuals process information through the lens of the opposite gender.
Androgynous individuals exhibit both masculine and feminine thinking
Kinsey’s Study
Sexual behavior comprises more than physical contact. It also includes desire, arousal, attraction, and fantasy
Scale of sexuality 0 to 6 where 0 is exclusively
Heterosexual and 6 homosexual and 7 is asexual.
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
Child’s mind grows through interaction with the physical environment
Schemas
Assimilation and accommodation
Stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to age 2)
Uses senses & motor abilities to interact with environment
The sensorimotor stage occurs from infancy through toddlerhood
Stranger Anxiety, or fear of strangers, is very common during this period (8 months).
Object permanence develops during this stage
Object permanence, or the knowledge that objects exist independently of one’s own actions or awareness
Preoperational Stage (2 to 6.7 years of age)
Children still cannot solve problems requiring logical thought
Develop symbolic thought, the ability to represent objects in one’ thoughts with symbols such as words.
Egocentrism: a self centered focus that causes children to see the world only in their own terms
Animistic (Animism) thinking: believing inanimate objects have life and mental processes
Centration: an inability to understand an event because the child focuses their attention too narrowly
Irreversibility: an inability to think through a series of events or steps and then reverse course
Artificialism: believing all objects are made by people.
Children begin to develop a theory of mind during this stage
Theory of mind is the ability to infer (understand) other’s mental states
Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)
Children in this stage can generally correct the cognitive errors made in the preoperational stage and understand the world in logical, realistic, and straightforward ways, but struggle to think systematically.
Not yet capable of abstract thinking
Mental operations: the ability to solve problems by manipulating images in one’s won mind
Conservation: the principle that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.
Formal Operational (12 to adulthood)
People begin to think about issues like being more accepted by peers, and abstract issues like love, fairness and our reason for existence.
Hypothetical reasoning is a special form of proof in which we start by assuming the truth of a formula.
Personal Fable: An adolescent’s belief that they are special and unique
Risk-taking behavior
Adolescent Egocentrism
Adolescent egocentrism is a normal stage of adolescent development that occurs between approximately 11 and 16 years of age. In this stage, young people are overly self-involver and unable to differentiate between their perceptions and the perceptions of others.
The Imaginary audience is a psychological concept common to the adolescent stage of human development. It refers to the belief that a person is under constant, close observation by peers, family, and strangers.
Criticism (Underestimate)
Most researches agree that children possess many of the cognitive abilities at an earlier age that Piaget suspected.
Vygotsky’s emphasis on how the child’s mind grows through interaction with the social environment
Zone of proximal development:
The difference between what a child can do along and what that child can do with a helper
Scaffolding: the process by which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing help as the less skilled learner improves
Zone of Proximal Development
What is known -> What is not known
Learning
3.5 Communication and Language Development
Phoneme 音素
In a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit
Morpheme 词素
In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning
May be a word or a part of word (such as a prefix)
Grammar
A system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate with and understand others.
Semantics
The set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language
Also, the study of meaning
Syntax
The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language / the arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language
Language is a shared (mutually agreed upon) system of arbitrary symbols (often expressed as and combined into phonemes, morphemes, and semantics)
Language is rule-governed (via grammar and syntax)
Language are generative to produce an infinity of ideas.
Primary language acquisition is an unconscious process.
Noam Chomsky said that humans will learn (or even develop their own) language
Language Acquisition Device. The LAD concept is a purported instinctive mental capacity which enables an infant to acquire and produce language.
Chomsky is considered a Nativist
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Linguistic determinism is the concept that language and its structures limit and determine human knowledge of thought, as well as thought processes such as categorization, memory, and perception.
Linguistic Relativism/relativity: the particular language we speak influences the way we think about reality
Deep structure is what you wish to express
Surface structure is how you express it
Individuals understand a sentence from surface to deep structure.
Stage of language acquisition
Babbling Stage (cooing)
The infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language
One-Word Stage-holophrases
A child speaks mostly in single words
Two-Word Stage
A child speaks mostly two0word statements
Telegraphic Speech
Children can speak phrases that are not only longer but also have more than two elements with no grammar.
Fast Mapping
Infer the meaning of a new word by creating the context for that word using their own instincts of the process of elimination.
Overgeneralization
Misapplying grammar rules
Broca’s area
Area in the left frontal lobe of the brain (in most people) devoted to the production of speech
Neurologist Paul Broca proved that damage to this area resulted in deficits in fluent and articulate speech
Broca’s aphasia
Wernicke’s area involved understanding the meaning of words.
Wernicke’s aphasia
Speaking fluently and pronouncing words correctly. But saying the wrong words also trouble in understanding what people say
3.6 Social-Emotional Development Across the lifespan
Ecological systems theory emphasizes the interrelationship of different developmental processes.
Microsystem (groups that have direct contact with the individual)
Home life
Parents
School
Friends
Siblings
Neighborhood
Childcare
Religion
Mesosystem (the relationships between groups in the microsystem
Interaction between kids, teachers, and parents/Friends and siblings/neighborhood and family/Daycare and family
Exosystem (indirect factors in an individual’s life)
Extended family members
mass media
Social services
Local government
Parents’ workplace
Family friends
Macrosystem (culture events that affect the individuals and others around them)
Values
Attitudes
Laws and legal systems
Customs
Ideologies
Political systems and policies
Nationality
Chronosystem (the individual’s current stage of life)
Historical events
Environmental changes
Parents employment status
Societal economic changes
Changes In family structures
Erikson’s Social Developmental Theory
| 0 - 18 m | Trust vs. Mistrust | Unsure that needs will be met. Trusting that the world is safe. |
| 18 m – 3 y | Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt | Children at this stage are focused on developing a greater sense of self-control. |
| 3 – 5 y | Initiative vs. Guilt | Play and other social interactions. Feel capable and able to lead others |
| 6 – 11 y | Industry vs. inferiority | Learning new skills. They feel useful and develop a sense of self-worth. Are not supported in learning new skills, Develop a sense of worthlessness of inferiority |
| 12 – 18 y | Identity vs. Role Confusion | Identity involves the experiences, relationships, beliefs, values, and memories that make up a person’s subjective sense of self |
| 18 – 40 y | Intimacy vs. isolation | The major conflict at this stage of life centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people. Can result in feelings of loneliness and isolation |
| 40 - 65 y | Generativity vs. stagnation | Strive to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by parenting children or fostering positive changes that benefit others. |
| 65 - Death | Integrity vs. despair | Retrospective look back and life and either feeling satisfied that life was well-lived (integrity) or regretting choices and missed opportunities (despair) |
Attachment Theory
Infant’s primary need.
Separation anxiety occurs when children express heightened anxiety or fear when away from a caregiver or in the presence of a stranger.
Mary Ainsworth’s Stranger Situation Test
Tested how babies respond to the temporary absence of their mothers.
Secure attachment: Secure attachment is classified by children who show some distress when their caregiver leaves but are able to compose themselves quickly when the caregiver returns.
Secure attachment: Secure attachment is classified by children who show some distress when their caregiver leaves but are able to compose themselves quickly when the caregiver returns.
Ambivalent attachment/anxious attachment: infants with insecure/resistant attachment are extremely distressed by the separations and cannot be soothed at reunions.
Disorganized attachment: A lack of clear attachment behavior. A mix of behaviors, including avoidance or anxious.
Temperament refers to biologically based individual differences in the way people emotionally and behaviorally respond to the world.
Temperament is related to how children attach to caregivers.
Temperament
Easy: Regular in their schedules
Difficult: opposite of easy ones; irregular in their schedules
Slow to warm up: quitter but slow to adapt to change
The regardless of whether or not the cloth-covered mother provided food, the infant monkeys would cling to her for comfort
The monkeys would only select the wire mother when she provided food.
Physical contact was important to child development
Authoritarian Parenting
Children are expected to follow the strict rules to established by the parents. Failure to follow such rules usually results in punishment.
Authoritative Parenting - Diana Baumrind
Setting standards and monitoring their children’s behavior. Assertive and supportive.
Permissive parenting
Make very few demands of their children.
Uninvolved parenting
Few demands, low responsiveness, and very little communication
Cultural differences exist in the ways these parenting styles affect outcomes in caregivers and children
During adolescence, individuals should take the time to explore different roles they may take on as adults.
Individuals who have explored different options, discovered their purpose, and have made identity commitments are in a state of identity achievement.
Identity moratorium is a state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made commitments.
Identity Foreclosure occurs when an individual commits to an identity without exploring options
Identity confusion/diffusion occurs when adolescents neither explore nor commit to any identities
3.7 Classical Conditioning
Learning the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.
Associative learning: learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli ( as in classical conditioning) or a response and its con-sequences (as in operant conditioning)
Cognitive learning the acquisition of mental information whether by observing event, by watching others, or through language.
Overlearning Being able to perform a task s well that the performance becomes automatic.
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov): Classical conditioning is the proves in which an automatic, conditioned response is paired with specific stimuli.
Neutral Stimulus: Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
A stimulus that automatically-without conditioning or learning – provokes a reflexive response.
Unconditioned means “unlearned” or “naturally occurring”
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
UCR: A response resulting from an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning
Conditioned Stimulus
Neutral Stimulus
A CS is the originally neutral stimulus that gains the power to cause the response
Conditioned Response
A CR is a response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Quick design
Find a example of classical conditioning name UCS, NCR, NS, CS, and.CR
John B. Watson (1924) Give me a dozen healthy infants, I’ll guarantee to train him to become cany type of specialist.
Generalization
Something is so similar to the CS that you get a CR.
Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between two similar signals stimulus.
An automatic response to a stimulus that has been learned from past exposures and experiences.
Learned Taste Aversions.
Development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste
Taste was followed by nausea occurring after only one association.
Garcia & Koelling (1966)
Thus, the animal learned to associate being sick with taste, and they learned to associate shock with light and sound.
Biological preparedness / biological predisposition: a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value.
Contiguity approach
The pairing of the neutral (eventual CS) and the natural (UCS) stimuli occurred because they are paired in time
Contingency approach
The CS and US get Paired because the CS comes to predict the UCS Animal can learn the predict ability of an event.
Counterconditioning is having someone experience a positive association with a previously negatively associated stimulus.
Process of classical conditioning
Acquisition: the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Higher-order conditioning (second-order conditioning)
A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience in paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. (a previous CS now is used as the US)
Primary Reinforcer vs Secondary Reinforcer